STYLISTICS AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
What is stylistics?
· This is the branch of language study that deals with how language varies in different contexts of use.
· Stylistics is the study of language varieties or styles, depending on the situation or context whether spoken or written.
· Stylistics is the description and analysis of the variability of linguistic forms in actual language use. The concepts of ‘style’ and ‘stylistic variation’ in language rest on the general assumption that within the language system, the same content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form.
· Therefore stylistics aims at studying the language features (lexical, grammatical/syntactical, phonological, graphological / graphetic, and semantic features.
THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE VARIATIONS
The concept of language variation is looked at in two levels/perspectives. First, we look at language variations existing due to some characteristics of users of that language. Secondly, we look at the variations caused by some situations in which the language is used.
Considering style as choice, there are a multitude of stylistic factors that lead the language user to prefer certain linguistic forms to others. These factors can be grouped into two categories: user-bound factors and factors referring to the situation where the language is being used.
User-bound factors include, among others, the speaker’s or writer’s age; gender; idiosyncratic preferences; and regional and social background.
Situation-bound stylistic factors depend on the given communication situation, such as medium (spoken vs. written); participation in discourse (monologue vs. dialogue); attitude/tenor (level of formality); and field/province of discourse (e.g. technical vs. nontechnical fields).
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
1. Variation according to users. (Dialect)
2. Variation according to use (Register)
DIALECT
Ø Dialect is the variety of language according to user.
Ø Chambers & Trudgill (1980:5) consider dialects as varieties, which are grammatically (and perhaps lexically) as well as phonologically different from other varieties.
Ø Stewart & Vaillet (2001:301) define a dialect as any variety of language spoken by a group of people that is characterized by systematic differences from other varieties of the same language in terms of structural or lexical features.
Ø Dialect can be defined as a variant of the language distinguished by minimal lexical, grammatical, and phonological differences.
Ø Dialect refers to features of grammar and vocabulary in addition to pronunciation that can identify someone’s geographical origin. E.g.
Ø I done it yesterday
Ø They really good. (Am E)
Ø I did it yesterday
Ø They are really good. (Br E)
FACTORS THAT GIVE RISE TO DIALECTS
Users of the same language use the language variably depending on some factors. The following are the factors that determine the dialect formation.
a. User’s place of origin (Geographical factor).
b. User’s class membership (Social stratification).
c. User’s individuality.
d. Users time of existence (historical/temporal factor).
e. User’s age.
f. User’s sex.
1. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR (REGIONAL DIALECT.)
It is easy to identify a user from a certain place by the way someone uses the language different from the other users from other place that speak the same language. Here we get the dialect that is called REGIONAL DIALECT.
Regional dialects are found at national and international levels. For example the Dialects of English at national level include Welsh, Scottish, cockney, and BBC English. At international level we have, British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English, West African Pidgin English (WAPE)etc.
Likewise, Kiswahili has regional dialects such as Kimvita (Mombasa), Kiunguja (Zanzibar), Kingwana (Zaire) etc.
The common differences between the two major Varieties of English.
BRITISH ENGLISH
(BrE)
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AMERICAN ENGLISH (AmE)
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GRAMMAR
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i. Has one form of past and past participle of the verb get-got
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Has two forms
Get-gotten(pp)-got (pt)
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ii. Repetition of the subject ‘one’
Eg. One cannot succeed unless one works hard.
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No repletion of ‘one’
Eg. One cannot succeed unless he/she works hard.
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iii. In questions
Eg Have you got a pen?
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Do you have a pen?
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iv. Use of preposition ‘from’ after different
Eg. Your shirt is different from mine.
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Uses ‘than’ after different.
Eg. Your shirt is different than mine.
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v. Retains ‘should’ after the verbs like demand, require, suggest, insist. Eg
We suggest that Sir Mwita should preach today.
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Omits ‘should’ after those verbs.
We suggest that Mwita preach today.
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PRONUNCIATION
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There are many words that differ in pronunciation some of them are:Schedule /∫edju;l/
News /nju:z/
car /ka:/
God /gɒd/
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Schedule /skeʤu:l/
News / nu:z/
car /ka:r/
God /ga:d/
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SPELLING/
ORTHOGRAPHY
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Programme
Theatre
Catalogue
Colour
Disk
cheque
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Program
Theatre
Catalog
Color
Disc
check
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LEXICON/
VOCABULARY
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Chemist
Maize
Elevator
Sweet
Petrol
Cv
Railway
Lorry
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Dentist
Corn
lift
candy
gas
resume
railroad
truck
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2. USER’S CLASS MEMBERSHIP/SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
We can also find users from a certain class speaking differently in certain aspects from users of another class who speak the same language. Here we get social dialect or sociolect.
The classes may be those of higher and lower, educated and uneducated, town dwellers and village dwellers, Muslims and Christians, etc.
3. USER’S TIME OF EXISTENCE
(HISTORICAL/TEMPORAL FACTOR)
Languages change with time (it is dynamic). Users of any language also use the language as it is used in their time of existence. This causes the varieties labelled as Old English, Middle English and Modern English. Language changes in all aspects, i.e. grammar, vocabulary, word order, spellings, meaning, pronunciation etc. Take for instance the following words how they have changed overtime.
OE VOCABULARY
Some of the old English vocabulary may look like the modern vocabulary but some may look different.
OE Mo E
Singan sing
stōd stood
ondswarede answered
onslepte asleep
Compare the following
gelimplice suitable
neata cattle
swefn dream
beboden entrust
4. USER’S INDIVIDUALITY (IDIOSYNCRATIC FACTOR)
Every individual user of a language has individual idiosyncratic (peculiar) linguistic features characterising the way he/she uses the language different from all the other users. Linguists believe that no two speakers of the same language speak exactly the same way. The differences in individual ranges from voice quality, pronunciation, grammar, usage, handwriting and preference in certain utterances like: you know.., in fact...., I see...,. The variety of language characterising an individual user is termed as IDIOLECT
5. USER’S AGE
Users of different ages use language differently in almost all such aspects as voice, pronunciation, vocabulary, and usage. We categorize age in terms of childhood, youth and old age. Children have their own way of speaking termed as childish. E.g. Motherese (an adult imitation of the speech of young children as used by mothers when speaking to their children.)
Young people’s dialect is characterised by slangs and peculiar accent. Old people use euphemism much often and sometimes they conservatively retain dated features of the language.
6. USER’S SEX.
Language also varies with sex in some aspects that make male users speak differently from female users. The difference is usually found in their voice quality, accent, as well as general usage, such that there as some expressions that are counted as feminine and masculine in nature. (Consider the Swahili slangsshostii and shoga which means best friend, can male speakers use them)
REGISTER.
This is a variety according to use. All the users of the language sometimes change their style of speaking or writing depending on some situational variables. The varieties that are influenced by different situations or social circumstances are called registers.
The variation can be reflected in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and meaning.
FACTORS THAT GIVE RISE TO REGISTER
1. FIELD (DOMAIN) OF DISCOURSE.
The term field or domain of discourse refers to an area in which the language is used. Language will vary according to the domain or field in which the user is. Under the term field we consider such things as, setting (the real environment), province (occupational activity) and subject matter (topic)
(a). Setting
This refers to areas where events are taking place. The place where communication is taking place can be in the church, courtroom, school, street etc. The setting makes a person choose a certain variety as appropriate. The setting can be formal, thus calling for a serious business-like kind of style called formal register or informal register. Some settings call for technical style. E.g. salt and water as used at home are sodium Chloride and H2O in science domain.
(b). Province.
This is a term used to refer to the occupational or professional activity the user is engaged in. Or it is the area of specialization to which the language is put into use. There are various provinces that give rise to specific styles. These include conversational, religious, law (legal), advertisement, literature, science, journalism, scripted and unscripted commentaries, literature, and etc. Each province has its peculiar stylistic features that make it distinct from others.
e.g. Can you state the province to which the following words belong; software, download, flash disc, megabytes, database, website, etc.
(c). Subject matter.
This refers to the topic discussed. For example the province of science may have subject matters such as biology, physics, psychology, geography. Some remarkable stylistic variations can be found in these different disciplines.
2. MODE OF DISCOURSE.
Mode basically refers to a manner of performance. In our study we look at the way discourse presentation is conducted. Under this we consider the medium used in transmitting the message and the participation in discourse. We also consider the modality (format or form) of the message.
(a) Medium.
This refers to the means of communication. We have two major media; speech and writing which have remarkable stylistic differences between them. Spoken discourse is spontaneous because you can transmit the message without preparation. Written discourse is non-spontaneous because it needs preparation before delivering the message.
Sometimes language is spoken in order to be written like in dictation, lectures, etc. Also language can be written in order to be spoken as in radio, TV.
(b) Participation
This is the act of communication that gives rise to varieties. When one person speaks and others listen we term it as monologue as in official meetings, sermons etc, and dialogue is used when communication involves more than one person as in discussions, interviews and normal conversations. These two differ greatly in their styles.
(c) Modality
It refers to the specifically labelled forms of message which are organized in a specific format and use special linguistic forms. It refers to graphology i.e. paragraphing, capitalization, punctuation, etc. This differ depending on the channel one decides to use e.g. newspaper, post card, letter, memo, C.V, telegram, advertisement, speech, etc.
3. TENOR OF DISCOURSE
It refers to the variation of language depending on the relationship between the user and the addressee. In other words it refers to the level of formality of a particular language. It can be formal, neutral or informal. The user will have to use the style that is appropriate when communicating with a person of a certain status.
4. STYLE
Style can generally be defined as a particular distinctive way of doing something. (In this case - the particular way of using the language). Or
Style is a deliberate variation of the language used by a speaker to meet certain communicative needs in a given situation. Style, as deviation from a norm, is a concept that is used traditionally in literary stylistics, regarding literary language as more deviant than nonliterary language use.
Take for example the following expressions which express the same fact but they vary in formality.
My father has deceased to join the heavenly choir.
My father has passed away.
My father has died.
My dad has died.
My old man just kicked the bucket.
Linguist (Joos) identified five levels of style namely;
i. Frozen style;
ii. Formal style
iii. Consultative style;
iv. Casual style and
v. Intimate style.
These five levels of formality are analogous/comparable to the way we dress;
Frozen - tailcoat, formal - suit, consultative - jacket and trousers, casual - leisure wear, intimate - pajamas (night dresses).
FROZEN STYLE
This is a style in which language is used to preserve certain beauty (aesthetics) or to show reverence (high respect). The writing is done in the absence of the reader and words are frozen into unchangeable patterns so as to maintain a certain order. Words are frozen and preserved by the society for use in circumstances calling for them. That is to say it uses expressions that are no longer in day to day use.
These include;
Ø Ceremonial statements, e.g. I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.
Ø Hymns and prayers. E.g. Church hymns and the Lord’s Prayer.
Ø Oaths. E.g. in church or court, or swearing ceremonies.
Ø Proverbs idioms and other sayings.
Ø National anthem, school songs, etc
FORMAL STYLE
· Is a variety of language that is accepted in serious speech or writing.
· It is characterised by the use of common core English, formal vocabulary and grammar. The use of long and complex sentences (with coordinate and subordinate clauses) which are mostly passivised. No slangs are used and speakers tend to be very impersonal by avoiding personal style and use the subject ‘it’.
E.g. It was proposed that..............
It was found out that .................. formal
Compare
We proposed that.................
I found out that ................... informal
· It is used for restricted affairs such as academic affairs, legal matters, typical public writing (e.g. formal letters), official business communication, reports, etc.
CONSULTATIVE STYLE.
· It is associated with conversation between people who are not familiar with each other and for discussion of serious matters like classroom discussion. Here the main purpose is to communicate.
· It is characterised by the use of polite language and employs words such as ‘would’, ‘could’, “should”. It also uses the common core vocabulary.
E.g. Sorry Madam, could you repeat the last point please?
Excuse me sir! Somebody wants to talk to you.
CASUAL STYLE
· Casual is a style mostly used in conversation among familiar friends. It is characterised by informal features. Some grammatical words are ellipted / dropped.
E.g. Where to? Instead of “where are you going?”
“To the lab.” Instead of “I’m going to the laboratory.”
· Casual and intimate are almost similar to the extent that sometimes one can hardly dichotomize the two.
· It includes colloquial and profane words
E.g. What the fuck are you doing there?
Bullshit! Where on earth did he go?
· Contracted form is also common.
I don’t know. We’ve to go now. Ok I’ll tell you don worry
· It makes use of first names of people only,
E.g. Samson preached today. Instead of Sir Samson Mwita preached today.
INTIMATE STYLE.
· This is a style used by people who have a very close relationship. It consists of very casual vocabulary and sound. Sometimes the vocabulary carries the meaning derived from a shared experience. E.g. I will refer to Jakaya M. Kikwete as “Hon. President” but his wife calls him “My dear”, or “My Sweet”, “My baby” Lovie, sweetheart etc.
· It is said that it is even possible for one to predict the feelings of another or what the other has to say.
MARKERS OF STYLE
These are linguistic features that are used in a text to differentiate it from others and enable us to recognise its style. The variation of one group of language to another is found at linguistic levels (stylistics significant features).
There are five linguistic levels.
LINGUISTIC LEVELS
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Graphological or graphitic level
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Phonological or phonetic level
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Lexical level
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Grammatical or structural
Level
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Semantic level.
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1. GRAPHOLOGICAL/GRAPHETIC LEVEL.
It is the study of the features of the words. They include:
· Punctuation, capitalization, underlining, paragraphing,
Italicisation, etc
· Use of diagrams, pictures, symbols, e.g. H2O for water.
· Size of words, (small, medium, large), bolding, colouring, etc
· Bracketing of additional information.
· Use of references (figures 45.3 or Pg no 56 etc)
· Use of numbers (numbering,) listing, letters of alphabet, bullets, etc.
· Abbreviations.
2. PHONOLOGICAL / PHONETIC LEVEL.
It studies the patterns of sound in a text. It involves the following.
· Use of rhythm, rhyme, and pitch movement.
· Intonation, (in written form it can be shown by capitalizing or italicizing)
· Onomatopoeic features,
· Pronunciation of words etc.
3. LEXICAL LEVEL.
This shows the formality of the language. How formal the language used is. It involves,
· Collocation, (the way words fit together,)
· Reduplication, (tip-top, tick-tock)
· Clipping, (phone, mic, )
· Blending,( Motel, Heliport)
· Acronym, (CCM, CWT)
· Euphemism, (eg I’m going for short call)
· Complex words, e.g. hemispherectomy.
· Hyphenated compounds. E.g. mother-in-law
· Personification, e.g. tiGO travels with you all the way.
4. GRAMMATICAL/STRUCTURAL LEVEL.
This deals with grammatical rules/aspects of a text. These include;
· Sentence analysis, length of sentences (long and complex sentences.), type of sentences, etc
· Choice of tense, incomplete or ungrammatical sentences,
· Clauses and phrases used e.g. subordinate or coordinate clauses.
· Repetition, rhetorical questions etc.
· SVOCA arrangement.
· Ellipsis, the use of tag questions, hesitations, etc
5. SEMANTIC LEVEL.
This deals with meaning aspect of a text.
· Figures of speech as similes, metaphors, irony, euphemism, proverbs, etc.
· Ambiguity,
Reasons for using such features
· To capture attention, and attract readers/listeners
· For emphasis,
· To persuade,
· For illustration,
· To economize the space.
1. SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE (TECHNICAL LANGUAGE)
This is the kind of language used in the scientific domain or in scientific documents. It is found in academic discipline like Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Geography, Psychology, Physiology, etc. It is normally understood by scientists and focuses on facts rather than opinions because the results of scientific discovery have to be universal. As a result it usually avoids the use of personal language and usually adopts the passive structure.
E.g. the experiment was conducted ...and it was discovered that ... so a conclusion can be drawn that...
Graphological features of scientific language.
Ø It makes frequent use of diagrams, figures, graphs, charts, maps, tables, etc. E.g. figure 1.2, or table 1.1
Ø It also uses chemical symbols, formulae, like H2O, H2SO4,
=mass (g) also m1 =E1
Molar mass (g/mol) m2 E2
Ø The use of numbers, and good arrangement as in
i. Problem identification
ii. Hypothesis formulation
iii. Data collection
iv. Data analysis
v. Data discussion and presentation
vi. Conclusion
Ø Clear headings and subheadings.
Ø Capitalization and Bracketing are also common as in this equation 4OHˉ(aq) 2H2O(l)+O2(g)+4eˉ
Ø Italicisation is also commonly used as in.
V2-V1
t2-t2
Ø Colouring is used especially in diagrams, pictures and tables for illustration,
Ø Use of abbreviation as in (R.A.M) for Relative Atomic Mass. 23 g/mol, (IUPAC), etc.
Ø There is frequent use of punctuation marks like apostrophe as inAvogadro’s constant, Newton’s Law, Archimedes’s principle.
Grammatical features of Scientific language.
Ø Complex sentences with lots of post-modification and well completed sentences for clarity.
E.g. Faraday’s 2nd law of electrolysis
=when the same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different electrolytes, the mass of a substance liberated or deposited at the electrodes is directly proportional to the chemical equivalent of the substance.
Ø Use o passive constructions.
The experiment was conducted and the results obtained indicated that...
e.g. Rust is formed when oxygen gas, iron and moisture ...
Ø Simple past tense in reports is common.
It was discovered that...
The experiment was conducted in the laboratory to find out ... it took place...
Ø Use of simple present to express universal truths/facts.
E.g. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
Water freezes at 0o C and boils at 100o C
Ø Use of principles, laws and theories.
E.g. the principle of conservation of energy states that =energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be changed from one form to another.
Ø Use of impersonal language.
It makes frequent use of “it” rather than I, We, You etc. as in
It was concluded that when water is heated up to 100oC it turns to vapour.
Lexical features
Ø It makes use of specialised scientific jargons/terms.
These include; sodium, methylhexane, dimethylpentane,
Ø Borrowing is also common especially from Greek and Latin, as the wordsBiology (bio=logus), zoology, botany,
Ø Turning/changing concrete nouns into abstract nouns. This is common when a scientist has discovered something, as in Lamarckism, Darwinism, etc
Ø Use of complex words e.g. dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Ø Use of scientific blending, clipping, and acronyms.
E.g. lab. (labolatory), OP (operating Room), zoo (zoology) IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.) DDT.( dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
EXERCISE
Study the following text then;
a. State the province And Show the stylistic features used
b. State two reasons for using those features.
During the reaction, 3315.20 cm3 of the gas produced was collected at S.T.P. If there was excess charcoal in the reaction mixture, what was the mass of lead oxide in the combustion tube? (Molar volume of at S.T.P=22.4dm3)
2. LEGAL LANGUAGE (LANGUAGE OF LAW)
This is the language used in the study of laws or in legal documents. It is used in courts and other legal documents like contracts, constitutions, memoranda, policies, summonses, Acts, copyrights, wills, etc. This language tends to be conservative (does not change easily) and should be very clear to avoid ambiguity. It is designed for reading rather than speaking and is mostly understood by lawyers themselves.
Graphological features.
Ø Division into sections, such as Part I, Part II, Part III etc
Ø Numbering/listing system;
Ø Clear paragraphing and simple punctuation, to avoid ambiguity.
Ø Headings and sub headings.
Ø National coat of arms is sometimes used for state legal documents.
Ø Bracketing of sections and articles.
Grammatical features
Ø Use of very long complex sentences with subordinate clauses.
Ø It makes frequent use of coordinators, yet, and, or, but,
Ø Frequent use of modifications of nouns. See examples above.
Ø Sometimes there is the use of small letters at the beginning of the sentence when clarifying the main article.
Ø Also there is frequent use of capital letters in the middle of a sentence. As in the example above.
Ø To avoid ambiguity, there is almost no use of pronouns; instead the subject (real name) is repeated several times.
Ø There is the use of normal SVOCA arrangement.
Ø The use of past tense is also common. This is common in court proceedings when reporting or giving witness to the event under judgement.
Ø The use of simple present tense and future time in declarations. As in above and below examples;
Ø Clarification of terms used in a document in legal definition;
E.g. This contract is signed on this 14th day of August 2015 between Mr. Samson Marwa who will be known as employer on oneside and Mr Mwita Chacha who will be known as employee on the other side. Or
Lexical and semantic features
Ø Use of Archaic words/phrases to make clarification.
E.g. hereby, herein, hereto, whereas, etc
Ø Complex prepositions, E.g. in respect of, in accordance with, in ties of, on the ground that, etc
Ø There is a rare use of adjectives.
Ø Use of abstract nouns. E.g. declaration, proposal, case, conditions, agreement,
Ø The use of legal terms (verbs and nouns) like sustained, objection, overruled, prosecutor, deem, require, accept, agree /agreement, issue, state, declare/declaration, propose/ proposal, defendant, complaint, commence/commencement.
Ø The use of Latin words, like declaration, de nova, mutatis mutandis, inter alia, judicial, prosequi,
Ø There is no use of euphemisms, metaphor, sayings, proverbs, etc. Everything has to be made clear to avoid ambiguity.
Phonological Features
These are especially common in court proceedings where it is possible to here, A BAM! On the table to end the session or the word cooooooourt! To signal the beginning of the session.
3. RELIGIOUS LANGUAGE
This is the language used in church in the Christian religion. But it should be born in mind that every religion has a language style that differentiates it from the ordinary language of everyday use. This has the following features.
Graphological features.
Ø Capitalization of the word God (and the pronouns referring to God) to differentiate them from other gods, and the word LORD when referring to God, or holy entities like Holy Bible.
Ø Arrangement into short lines like poetry. Especially poetic books like psalms, job, proverbs, and lamentations.
Ø Numbering. The bible is written in Chapters and verses which are numbered to ease the reading or referencing. E.g. John 3:16
Ø Some bibles have subheadings which are bolded. E.g. The Prodigal son
Ø Use of italics for additional information. This also shows some of the verses that are not realised in the same way across different versions or those which were added by biblical compilers. E.g. The LORD is my shepherd.
Ø Use of footnotes to show additional information and synonymous verses in some verses and headers to show the book name.
Grammatical features
Ø Relative clauses are very common.
e.g. For the woman who has a husband is bound....(Rom7:2)
For everyone who asks receives, and he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it will be opened. (Matt 7:8)
Ø The use of vocative phrases and imperatives. Vocatives are the words that name the addressee.
Ø Oh! My God! Heal my mom!
Ø Hear Oh LORD when I cry with my voice, (Psalm 26:7)
Ø Redeem Israel, O God, out of all their troubles! (Psalm 25:22)
Ø The use of appositive phrases/clauses as a way of praising God. Appositive phrases are noun phrases that are used to modify other nouns. This is common in prayers.
o As in; LORD God, Our heavenly King...
o Jesus Christ, the son of God...
o God Almighty, the creator of heaven and earth...
Ø There is also the use of very long and complex sentences. As in John 3:16 For God so loved the word that he gave us his only begotten son that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have everlasting life.
Ø There is also the use of parallel structures
Praise the LORD from the heavens;
Praise him in the heights
Praise him all his angels;
Praise him all his hosts
Praise him sun and ... etc Psalms 148
Lexical features
Ø The use of archaic words which can be subcategorised into the following;
o The use of old forms of suffixes like eth, est, or th.
Eg sayth the Lord, when He cometh,
o The use of outdated personal pronouns such as thou, thee, thine, ye, thy, etc. E.g. Honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee.
Ø Verbs of middle English such as spake for spoke, hath for has.
Ø There is the use of special religious/spiritual terms like JEHOVAH, Angles, devil, Lucifer, sacrament, baptism, communion, hell, Jerusalem, hallelujah, amen, etc
Ø The use of Hebrew words is also common. As the names referring to God such as JEHOVAH-JIRE, JEHOVAH-SHALOM, JEHOVAH-ELSHADDAI, JEHOVAH-ROHI, JEHOVAH-SHAMMA, Eli Eli Lama sabachthani?, Maran atha etc.
Semantic features
Ø There is the use of parables, proverbs, idioms, metaphorical expressions, similes, and euphemisms. E.g. The LORD is my shepherd. The sinner maybe called the lost sheep.
Ø Non Literal meaning or Connotative meaning is also common. In the language of religion words don’t always mean what they mean at the surface level. Some words have metaphorical meanings while others require prophetic interpretation. E.g. “The Lamb of God” means “Jesus”, “bread of life” means “the word of God” “beast” means kingdom etc.
Ø Religious language is ambiguous. Most expressions have more than one possible interpretation. That may also explain why there are many denominations though they use the same Bible.
Phonological features
Ø There is the use of high pitch especially in preaching or singing.
Ø Rhyme, Rhythm and beats are also common in church hymnals and songs.
4. LANGUAGE OF JOURNALISM
(News Paper Reporting)
This is the kind of language used by the media. In written form it is commonly seen in newspapers, newsletters, magazines etc. In this discussion our focus will be the language of newspaper reporting.
Graphological features,
Ø Bolding, Colouring, underlining, the headlines to attract attention E.g. Magufuli, the next President
Ø Use of pictures for evidence and cartoons for comic effect.
Ø Large font size for headlines to capture attention.
Ø Division in columns to economise the space.
Ø Italics especially when mentioning the name of the Newspaper. E.g. The president has praised Mwananchi Newspaper for its contribution....
Ø Punctuation marks are common. E.g. Quotation marks are used to show the direct quotations.
Ø Arrangement in short paragraphs which sometimes consist of only one sentence.
Grammatical features
Ø The use of long and complex sentences. This is done to achieve what the journalists call W5H, who, what, where, when, why and how. E.g.
At least ten people have died in a road accident in Chalinze Coastal region, due to a car crash that involved a fast moving Noah with Reg T667BVC coming from Dar-es-Salaam to Morogoro against a Truck with Reg no T 367 BDX that was on the way to Dar-es-Salaam yesterday.
Ø Simple present tense is used in headlines. It makes the report alive. As in these examples.
“President Hon. J.P. Magufuli addresses the nation tonight”
“Obama visits Tanzania next week”
“Young Africans SC plays against samba SC today”
Ø Ellipsis/omission of grammatical words in headlines
E.g. THOUSANDS DIE IN FLOODS instead of “thousands have died in the floods”.
Ø The use of pre and post modifiers in noun phrases.
E.g. The newly elected Tanzanian President in the general election that took place on 25th October 2015 from CCM, Hon. J.P Magufuli will be sworn on Wednesday 4th November 2015.
Ø Passive structure is also used. As in “at least two people have been killed in a bomb blast .....”
Ø Direct speech (quotation) is common for reference to show the validity/genuineness of the information.
Ø E.g. speaking to the press this morning the president said “all civilians are advised to...”
Lexical features
Ø Use of formal vocabulary. Because it is believed to be a formal type of communication.
Ø The use of acronym is also common.
E.g. JK warns the opposition parties.
Ø Personification is common. E.g. Simba to kill Mtibwa today
Ø Compound words are also used.
Semantic features.
Ø Ambiguity is common. This is done purposefully to persuade the reader to buy a newspaper or to continue listening. E.g. Bunge on fire today(one may think that the Parliamentary building has caught on fire or there is a hot issue to be discussed.) Yanga kills Simba. One may think that Yanga has literally killed samba players or defeated them in a football match.
5. LANGUAGE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
A public speech/speaking (sometimes termed as oratory/oration) is an act of performing a presentation directly to a live audience in a structured, manner to inform, influence or entertain them. It is a form of address meant to convey one’s thoughts or opinions, share information or spread awareness among a large number of people.
A good speech has clarity of thought and expression, accuracy of facts and an unbiased view of issues. This is a very broad category and covers activities from sermons, lectures and formal speeches.
However there is a difference between spoken speech and written speech (read speech).
Stylistic features of public speaking.
Ø Heading,
Ø Greetings/salutations in respect to the protocol
Ø Very long embedded and complex sentences. E.g. Martin Luther’s speech “I Have a Dream”
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today!
Ø Speech markers are also used, firstly, secondly, in addition to that, moreover, You are all aware of, Allow me to say, On behalf of, Besides, Nevertheless, Last but not least, Lastly, Finally, To conclude etc
Ø Structural parallelism is common.
Go back to Mississippi,
go back to Alabama,
go back to South Carolina,
go back to Georgia,
go back to Louisiana,
go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities,
Ø Special lexical items may be used for special audience. E.g. young, adult, political rally, economists,
Ø Proverbs, sayings, idioms and euphemisms may also be used.
Ø Figurative language is very common; similes, metaphors, personification, allusion, etc. These are very effective devices for making the speech live, effective, attractive and appealing to the listeners of the speech. Like this simile in Dr. Luther’s speech.
No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until “justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.”
Ø The use of rhetorical question, attention getting devices such as tag questions, e.g. who’ll save us, who’ll help us, who’ll solve our problems? It is us and our children. Isn’t it?
Ø Quotations from prominent people (scholars)
Ø Conclusion
“Free at last! Free at last!
Thank God Almighty, we are free at last.”
Ø It should avoid ambiguity because the audience might have people of different abilities.
Ø The voice quality should be clear with manageable pauses to allow the audience to digest the message.(in spoken speech)
Ø Onomatopoeic words can also be used.
6. LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISEMENT
This is the type of language used to promote sales of services or product and is found in newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, notice boards, billboards, posters etc.
Advertisement is a form of marketing strategy used to persuade, and encourage the audience to make a business contact between the buyer and the seller. It can also aim at encouraging the customers to continue using a particular product or making a new product known to the customers/public, i.e. to look for a new market and promoting the sale of products and services.
Advertisements can be categorised into Display and ClassifiedAdvertisements. A good advertisement should be simple, humorous, emotional, memorable, legible, and eye catching.
Graphological features.
Ø Heading/headline. {it can be short or long)
Ø Colouring, variation in font size, bolding, capitalization, eg
A HOUSE FOR SALE
Located at Pugu Kajiungeni 500m from the tarmac road. Supplied withwater, electricity. Contacts 0765...
Ø A trademark, address or company logo may be included.
Ø Numbering/bullets in Listing the services and products offered.
Ø Abbreviations are used for brevity and economy. E.g. Ltd, Co, CRDB, NBC, etc.
Ø Punctuation marks are also common features
Ø Pictures, diagrams of the product may be included.
Ø Misspelling: there is deliberate misspelling to attract attention.
Grammatical features
Ø Ungrammatical sentences to capture attention. E.g. a big show tonite at Club Billicanas.
Ø Superlative language, the best you can imagine, next to none, the cheapest, Vodacom Tanzania’s leading cellular network.
Ø Use of contracted forms. We’ve.
Ø Imperative words. E.g. If you like it then crown it, don’t miss it, come one come all, Pepsi dare for more, make the most of it.
Ø The use of Comparatives.
Lexical features
Ø Personification of products.
E.g. tiGo travels with you everywhere.
Ø Adjectives of quality are used; wonderful, beautiful, terrific, durable, long lasting.
Ø Blending, clipping and coining are commonly used for products like, Hedex, Airtel, Celtel, Zantel, phone no.
Ø Abbreviations are common for brevity and economy.
E.g. NSSF, PSPF, LAPF, tel. No.
Phonological features
o Rhythm, Rhyme, Repetition can be used.
Semantic features
Ø Ambiguity
Ø Figurative language (figures of speech are used) e.g.
Simba cement strong as a lion.
Foma gold makes your cloths as white as snow.
Ø Proverbs, idioms, and sayings.
7. LANGUAGE OF CONVERSATION
This is the language we use on daily basis to exchange information or views which can be formal or informal. However informal language/speech dominates most of our conversations.
It can be found in both written (as in informal letters) and spoken forms although primarily it is meant for conversation. Most of the time conversation style is non-formal and is used in intimate or casual situations.
Graphological features
The written conversations have the following Graphological features.
Ø Hesitation gaps (dots or dashes) e.g. Well...I, I wish to....go there on.....may be Thursday.
Ø Italics, bolding, bracketing.
Ø Dialogue format.
Ø Punctuation marks like Exclamation marks, question marks, quotation marks, colon, etc
Syntactical features.
Ø Interjections are common.
Oh my goodness! What beautiful car!
Ø Contracted forms. I’ll be there..., We’ve finished, They won’t understand.
Ø Attention-getting devices. Look, listen, you see, you know, by the way, well, come on...
Ø Hesitations, gap fillers. Eerrr..., mmhh..., oh...
Ø Simple sentences, e.g. let’s go,
Ø Shortened or minor sentences, see you, I’ll be back, told you?
Ø Questions with short answers
E.g. QN: Do you know me?
AN: Not really.
QN: Where to?
AN: Library.
Ø Question tags. We are leaving today, aren’t we?
You know well that I love you, don’t you?
Ø Incomplete sentences. (This can also be due to interruption)
E.g. As I was talking to him...guess what...let nobody cheat you.
Ø Sentences may begin with a coordinating or subordinating conjunction. E.g.And where did he go?
But I don’t understand what’s wrong with him nowadays.
Because of his money, then he thinks he can.......
Ø Repetition, e.g. I regret, I really regret...
Ø Randomness of the subject matter because language of conversation in spontaneous.
Ø Grammatical errors and mistakes are common.
Lexical features
Ø It avoids specialised jargons and makes use of everyday vocabularies (popular language).
Ø There is ambiguity. That’s the big one.
Ø Colloquial expressions and idioms are common.
o Hi! What’s up!
o What the hell are you talking about?
o Hey guys! Hurry up!
o Come up with something I may understand,
o He just kicked the bucket this morning.
Ø Lexical exaggeration is common.
E.g. When it’s so hot. We are going to melt here. Or it’s freezing here (in cold moments)
Phonological features
Ø Onomatopoeic words are used, especially laughs and cries but also whistling, coughing, clearing the throat etc. Ha! ha! Shiiiiiiii!
Ø Dialectical pronunciation. Dis for this, dat for that, tin for thing etc.
ASSIGNMENT.
Study the following texts and state (a) The Province (b) Stylistic features of each.
1. All intellectual property rights, including copyright in this publication, except for those attributed to named sources, are owned by the author(s) of this research memorandum. No part of this publication may be copied or transmitted in any form without the prior written consent from the author(s).
2. 11Verily, verily, I say unto thee, We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen; and ye receive not our witness.12If I have told you earthly things, and ye believe not, how shall ye believe, if I tell you of heavenly things? 16For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.
COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH
THE CONCEPT OF COMMONUCATION
Communication is the exchange of ideas, information, etc between two or more people. It is also the process of transferring information, ideas, emotions, skills, etc, by means of symbols, works, pictures, figures, and graphs.
Also communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing or behaviour.
Etymologically, the word communication originated from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means ‘to make common’. That is to say when the idea you have in your mind resembles the idea I have in my mind we have communicated; we have created a common understanding. Diagrammatically it can be shown in this way.
The shaded part shows that some understanding has taken place.
In communication absolute or complete understanding between two individuals can never be achieved because each human being is a unique individual in terms of experience, attitudes, values, background, and perception.
Kochler & Sisco view Communication as a complex interacting process involving shared assumptions and unspoken agreements, feedback and verification between the sender and the receiver.
Communication is also defined as the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another. It is a bridge of meaning among people so that they can share what they feel and know.
Communication can be categorised as Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication. Verbal communication involves words (language) spoken or written.
This is the common means of communication used by human beings. While non verbal communication involves the use of alternative ways other than words. These include signs, facial expressions, body language, etc.
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Scholars have suggested different models through which communication process may be carried out. However the following elements are key to any understanding of the communication process.
Encoder (sender/source of information)
Message. (content/information=what is being communicated)
Channel, (the medium through which the message is transmitted) it can be a letter, post card, a speech, phone call, radio, Tv, books, telegram, telefax, internet. Etc.
Decoder (Receiver=for whom is the message intended, who interprets the message)
Feedback. (The outcome/response of the message back to the source.
The communication process begins with the sender, in other words the encoder who sees the need to communicate thoughts, feelings, anxiety, orders, advices etc. On the other end of the communication channel there is a receiverin other words the decoder who receives the message.
Communication is a two way process.
RECEIVER/ENCODER
|
SENDER/ ENCODER
|
MESSAGE
|
CHANNEL
MEDIUM
|
/
MEDIUM
FEEDBACK
|
A person who receives the message is expected to react to the message by sending back the feedback. When he/she sends thee feedback he/she in turn becomes the encoder.
SIX STAGES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS.
A two way communication takes six stages to be accomplished.
1) The idea is developed in the mind of the sender. The sender could be a writer or a speaker depending on whether his/her communication is written or oral.
2) The idea is encoded into linguistic symbols, normally words or sometimes graphics or and pictures which express the sender’s message for the receiver to understand as intended and responds accordingly. The message could be verbal or non-verbal.
3) The idea is transmitted to the desired destination- the receiver. The sender has to decide on how to send the message. E.g. Written channel (words, graphic, symbols, etc) or oral channel (oral words). In this case the choice of medium and channel is influenced much by the interrelationship of sender and receiver. If the sender needs immediate feedback, then oral channel would be the best alternative. If the message contains some figures, and calculations the, a written medium would be the best option.
4) The idea/message must be received by the intended receiver.
5) The idea/message must be decoded or interpreted according to the receiver’s experiences.
6) The receiver sends feedback to the sender based on the correct interpretation of the symbols.
The entire exchange of information takes place within an environment that may include much interference that hinders effective communication.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
The communication barriers are the interferences that take place between the sender and the receiver. They entail forces or things that hinder the message to reach the intended destinations effectively. When the message fails to reach the intended receiver, it is always supposed that some communication barrier caused the communication breakdown in the process.
Types of Communication Barriers
(A) Personal Barriers
These are communication interferences that arise from human, emotions, values and limitations. These are most common barriers in work situation including poor listening habits, incomplete feedback, silence etc.
(B) Physical Barriers
These are environmental factors that can reduce or prevent the sending and receiving of messages. Such physical interference include distance, distracting noise, and the breakdown of communication media such as telephone, radio, Television etc..
(C) Semantic barriers
These arise from limitations in the symbols (words) with which we communicate. Words are our main form of communication but they have different meanings that are often misunderstood. The sender might use difficult, new or ambiguous word. Semantic barrier can arise due to vocabulary deficiencies. Most English speakers are familiar with 30,000 to 40,000 words out of 600,000 words in English language, however only about 10,000 words are used by speakers of English.
This would not have created any problem if all the English speakers were familiar with and used the same 10,000 to 40,000 words. The range of the active vocabulary of the sender may include a large number of words not within the active vocabulary of the receiver.
(D) Psychological barriers.
This occurs in the mind of the listener / reader who may be thinking of or picturing something else while the communicator is communicating to him/her. The barrier can be worry, anger, hunger, fear, hatred, stress etc. For example on a day when things are wrong at home a person’s written or oral communication at the office may sound harsh. It’s likewise when things are fine; someone’s emotional condition may be under control thus effective communication.
LETTER WRITING
There are two major types of letters;
(a) Personal/friendly/informal letter.
(b) Business/formal/official letter.
PERSONAL/FRIENDLY/ INFORMAL LETTER
A friendly/informal letter is written to relatives, parents or familiar friends. Because of the relationship between the addressee and the writer, even the language tends to be informal in nature.
Stylistic Features of Informal Letter.
i. One address; that is, the sender’s address on the top right hand side.
ii. The date below the sender’s address.
iii. Salutation, which can be; Dear Pendo, Hi Pendo, or Hello Pendo‟.
iv. Introduction of the letter.
v. The content containing the information /message you are communicating.
vi. The ending, with; Yours’, Your friend, It’s me, love, Yours affectionate, In love, etc.
vii. Sender’s name or signature.
viii. Punctuations marks can be used
ix. The use of personal language is common. It can express the feelings and emotions of the writer. E.g. You have driven me crazy, The first time I saw you, you stole my heart away.
x. Use of colloquial/casual/informal language like honey, sweetheart, mummy, daddy, hi,
xi. The use of slangs, e.g. tsup! I wanna tell you sth, I’m gonna visit you...
xii. Ungrammatical language can be employed. E.g. someone may write “luv” for “love”,
xiii. Contracted form is common. E.g. I’m, I’ve, We’ll, I don’t.
xiv. The letter can be as long as the writer pleases.
xv. Incomplete sentences can be used. Eg you know what...
BUSINESS/OFFICIAL/FORMAL LETTER.
F
|
ormal letters include business transaction letters like job application, order letters, letter of adjustment or complaint, editorial letters, requisitions, acceptance letters, confirmation letters, payment request, debt reminders and many others. All business letters have the same format. There are two addresses, the language used is formal the body is brief, and the tone is official.
Stylistic Features of Formal Letter
a) Brevity; It should be brief to capture the intended message. That is to say only the necessary words are written.
b) Clarity; The letter should contain all the relevant information and written in a clear form.
c) Courtesy: The letter should be polite and diplomatic without rude words.
PARTS OF A FORMAL LETTER
1. Sender’s address.
This appears at the top right of the letter. Although it is necessary to punctuate the letter, in modern writing punctuation are not used. Sender’s address helps the receiver/addressee when replying the letter. NOTE: Your name is not part of sender’s address.
2. Date.
It goes below the sender’s address and can be abbreviated or written out in full. This helps to know whether the letter has reached on time or not. There are different ways of writing the date. The one you choose is largely a matter of personal preferences
22.4.2015.
22/4/2015.
2015, April 22nd.
22nd,April 2015.
April 22nd, 2015
2015, 22nd April.
3. Recipient’s address
It appears at the left below the date line. It should include the title of the recipient and the post office box. E.g.
The Headmistress,
Busegwe Girls High School
P.O.Box 1515
Musoma
Some formal letters may need to pass under forwarded signatures. In this case the recipient’s address will be the first on the left hand side followed by the addresses of the forwarders from superior to less superior with the abbreviation U.F.S. separating the addresses.
4. Salutation
If you know the person’s name it’s better to use Dear Mr./Mrs./Dr/Ms/Prof………If not use Dear Sir/Madam. Your letter will be received more favourably if you address the person by his/her name. So try to find out their names.
5. RE: Heading
This is a brief statement explaining your reason for writing your reason for writing the letter. It should be six words or less. It is usually bolded and/or underlined.
E.g.: RE: APPLICATION FOR A POST OF A SECRETARY.
6. Body of your letter
Application letters should be brief so keep your sentences short and to the point. Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a new idea into your letter. End with a short sentence that anticipates a response of the addressee and your readiness to appear for an interview. E.g. I look forward to hearing from you soon.
I look forward to an early affirmative response from your side for a chance to appear for an interview.
7. Closing/ending.
You sign off your letter by writing;
Yours faithfully, if you don’t know the person’s name.
Yours sincerely, if you have included the person’s name.
However, in modern letters the words “thanks” and “regards” can be used.
8. Signature
Put your signature above your name. If you are typing your letter make sure you leave enough space for you to fill in a signature.
9. Sender’s name.
Close your letter by writing/typing out your name in full.
10. The use of formal vocabulary and polite language like I would like to..., would you..., thanks in advance...,
11. Official titles such as manager, director, headmistress,
12. The use of grammatically correct sentences.
13. Impersonal language is used. It should not reveal the feelings of the writer even when the writer knows the addressee personally. E.g. It is said...,
FORMATS OF JOB APPLICATION LETTER
Business letters may appear in two formats namely;
i) Modified block format
ii) Full block format
In the modified block format, the heading, closing and signature are aligned along the right margin. Paragraphs are indedted.
in full block format all the elements are aligned along the left margin and the paragraphs are not indented.
AN EXAMPLE OF A JOB APPLICATION LETTER
BUSEGWE GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL
P. O Box 1515
MUSOMA
19th April 2015
HEADMISTRESS,
BUSEGWE GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O. BOX.1515
MUSOMA .
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR A TEACHING JOB AS ENGLISH TEACHER.
In response to your advertisement heard on radio free Africa on 22nd April that you are looking for an English teacher, I would like to submit my application.
I am a young male Tanzanian graduate aged 28 with a Bachelor of Arts with Education degree from the University of Dodoma. I graduated in 2012 leaving with an upper second class degree specializing in English and Literature. I would like to apply for a teaching job at your school on a permanent or contract basis, for the subjects mentioned above.
I am interested in working with your school, because I believe it will provide me with a good atmosphere to develop my potentials and utilize my abilities to the fullest. I am certainly sure that I am well experienced and qualified to shoulder all the responsibilities I am likely to be given, in order to meet the expectations of your institution, since I am young, energetic, smart, hardworking and confident fellow.
If I am given a chance to serve you as English / Literature teacher, I am sure to give you the fullest satisfaction out of my hard work, enthusiasm, experience and sincerity. Further details regarding my qualification, experience and other particulars are given in the enclosed bio-data.(CV).
I look forward to an early affirmative response from your side, for a chance to present my candidature in person and appear for an interview at your convenience.
Yours faithfully,
Mwl. Samson M Marwa.
Samples of openings of application letters.
1. I am writing to apply for the post of Personal Secretary to the Public Relation Officer advertised in “THE TIMES” of July 10th……………….
2. I would like to apply for the post of English teacher advertised on “Radio One” on 23rd March .....................
3. In response to your advertisement in yesterday’s “DAILY NEWS” I am writing to apply for the post of Assistant to the works Manager ……….
4. With reference to the advertisement heard on Radio Free Africa on 27th of July 2015, I would like to apply for the post of Computer programmer …………
5. I am writing to apply for the above post which was advertised on your websitewww.udom.ac.tz on 2nd of February 2014.
6. I am writing to apply for the post of Security guard advertised in the yesterday’s “MWANANCHI” and I am enclosing a copy of my CV as requested.
NOTE
The end of your letter should correspond to its beginning.
SALUTATION
|
CLOSING/ENDING
|
CONTENT
|
Dear Sir/Madam
|
Yours faithfully
Yours truly
|
Formal relationship
(not friendly/very formal)
|
Dear Mr Mwita
Dear Madam Dorah
|
Yours sincerely (because you mentioned the name)
|
Semi-formal
(friendly atmosphere)
|
THE BODY OF YOUR LETTER
It is important to understand the skills in writing application letters. If your letter is badly written you might not get the job you are applying for.
Here are things to note.
1. It’s important to show where and when you saw an advertisement inviting applications.
2. It’s important to give the following information.
Age, sex, nationality, marital status, educational qualification, experience, reasons for applying and promises of loyal service (very brief), readiness for interview, referees and enclosed testimonials (CV and certificates).
WRITING CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) /RÉSUMÉ
This is a written record of your education and the jobs you have done, that you send when you are applying for a job. A well-written, well-produced, appropriate CV/résumé is vital for getting you to the interview stage for job.
This is a very important document to be attached to your application letter because it sells you to your employer a forehand before he/she sees you in person. It also helps your employer to know how to treat you if he decides to offer you the job. So the skills for writing a CV are as much important as the skills for the application letter.
A CV must include among other things your personal particulars, educational qualification, working experience, other skills, experiences, interests, hobbies, the referees, etc it can be long enough depending on someone’s education and working profile but some scholars propose that it should not be longer than two pages if possible. It is also advisable to present yourself positively and accurately.
Make your CV attractive and easy to read: use capitals, bold type, spacing and underlining and don’t send a photo unless asked to.
COMPONENTS OF A CV
a. PERSONAL PARTICULARS
Here you talk something about you in brief. Things to include are as follows though it is not binding that all these elements must appear in your CV.
a) Surname.
b) Other names (as they appear in your academic certificates)
c) Sex (male/female)
d) Age / Date of birth (Year of birth alone is also acceptable)
e) Marital status(single/Married)
f) Occupation (your current job if any)
g) Education (the highest level reached eg BA-ED hons)
h) Year of graduation
i) Nationality (Tanzanian)
j) Religion (Christian/Muslim)
k) Languages (fluent in ……)
l) Contact address (including phone numbers and e-mail address if any)
b. EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION/BACKGROUND/HISTORY
State your education history showing the schools/colleges you have attended. The common convention is that which begins from highest level to lowest. (From most recent to the oldest) E.g. From University to Primary although some authors suggest that we omit primary school. E.g.
*YEAR
|
*Institution and qualification/awards
|
2011-2014
|
University of Dodoma (UDOM) Bachelor of Arts with Education. Second class (BA-ED)
|
2009-2011
|
Mwenge High School. Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE)
|
2005-2008
|
Mogabiri Secondary School. Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE)
|
2001-2007
|
Kenyamanyori Primary school. Primary School Leaving Certificate (PSLC)
|
* You can omit the titles
It can alternatively be arranged as follows
*YEAR
|
*Institution
|
*qualification/awards
|
2011-2014
|
University of Dodoma (UDOM)
|
Bachelor of Arts with Education. Second class (BA-ED)
|
2009-2011
|
Mwenge High School.
|
Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE)
|
2005-2008
|
Mogabiri Secondary School.
|
Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE)
|
2001-2007
|
Kenyamanyori Primary school.
|
Primary School Leaving Certificate (PSLC)
|
c. WORKING EXPERIENCE
This is also arranged just as much the same way as we arrange the education history. The difference comes in that here we don’t use qualification but rather position you held. It is also advisable that you say the duties you were doing, than simply the position.
*YEAR
|
*Institution and Position
|
2011-2014
|
Teaching English in all classes and assisting as Academic master at Main Greenhill Secondary school
|
2009-2011
|
Teaching English/literature and assisting as the head of Language department and coordinator of English club and also assisted in school drama production at Mwenge High School.
|
2005-2008
|
Teaching English subject and coordinating the language department and later appointed as a Second master at Mogabiri Secondary School.
|
d. OTHER EXERIENCES/INTERESTS/SKILLS/ HOBBIES ETC
Here you add other experiences, skills, interests and all the potentials you have whether academic or non-academic but which in one way or another may add value to your job. Some people separate skills with interests. These include,
a. Leadership,
b. Computer knowledge
c. Driving skills, entrepreneurship skills,
d. Hobbies; singing, chatting, reading etc
e. Interests in Community services and volunteering spirit.
f. Etc
e. REFEREES
These are people who can give confirmatory remarks regarding the information you have given. They can be your former heads of schools or your former bosses. Get them informed when you use them as referees. Give their names, titles, contact address, and phone number.
A sample of a CV.
CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)
PERSONAL PARTICULARS
Surname : Marwa
Other names : Samson Mwita
Nationality : Tanzanian
Education : Bachelor degree (BA-ED)
Religion : Christian (Seventh-Day Adventist)
Marital status : Married
Languages : Fluent in English, Kiswahili and Kurya
Contacts : P.O.BOX 11050
DAR-ES-SALAAM
0765656800/0712504704
Email-samwiterson@gmail.com
EDUCATION BACKGROUND AND QUALIFICATIONS
YEAR INSTITUTION AND AWARD
2009-2012 :University of Dodoma Bachelor of Arts with Education (BA-ED)- Upper second 4.2 GPA)
2006-2008 :Mwenge High school advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination. ACSEE=DIV 1-4points)
2002-2005 :Mogabiri Secondary School Certificate of Secondary Education Examination CSEE =Div 3 -15 points)
1995-2001 :Kenyamanyori P/School Primary School Leaving Certificate (PSLC)
WORKING EXPERIENCE
YEAR INSTITUTION AND POSITION
2013- 2014 Maroroni secondary School (English teacher, assistant academic master head of language department, School secretary)
2012-2013 Main Grenhill Secondary school. (English & Kiswahili teacher)
OTHER EXPERIENCES, INTERESTS AND SKILLS
Ø Computer literacy in Ms office, Adobe Photoshop, Logo creator, graphics design, etc
Ø Writing educational and religious materials and participating in community services and church evangelism.
Ø Entrepreneurship skills, drawing, blogging, reading, and sharing knowledge.
Ø Interests in drama both acting and directing. (was a member of the university of Dodoma theatre group)
REFEREES
Peter Marwa
Headmaster Temeke Adventist Schools
0767526534
0713526534
Mr Werema James
Senior Academic Master
Mtoni Secondary School
0769075600
OFFICIAL MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
This is an official document used to communicate information within an organization or at work place. It can be written to inform of a meeting, introduction of a new employee, information about transfer or promotion and demotion of a certain employee etc.
Stylistic Features of a Memo
a. It can be written by the boss to the employee, or vice versa, or an employee to a fellow employee.
b. It is very brief and direct to the point (topic)
c. Usually it is not more than a page.
d. It is usually written on a piece of paper.
e. It operates within an organisation.
f. It shows the writer and the recipient.
g. All writings must begin from the left margin.
FORMAT OF A MEMO
It has the following sections
a. “TO’ section showing the receiver of the memo.
b. “FROM” section showing the name of the sender.
c. “DATE” section showing when the memo was written.
d. “SUBJECT HEADING” section showing what the memo is about.
e. “MESSAGE” section containing the message delivered.
f. “CONCLUSION” section showing what to be done, when and by whom.
g. SIGNATURE” section (optional)
EXAMPLE OF A MEMO
SAMWITERSON CO. LTD.
P.O.BOX 11050 DSM
TO: Samson M Marwa, The managing Derector
FROM: Nuru Athuman.
DATE: 23rd Nov 2015
SUBJECT: Termination of my job contract.
I am writing to inform you of my intention to terminate my job contract with effect from 1st December 2015. I appreciate the good time i spent working with you since I have gained enough experience and created a network of friends. I have got a scholarship to further my studies in U.K. next year and i would like to make earlier arrangement for the trip. So you can make arrangements for the replacement.
Thanks once again for your cooperation.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Another type of formal letters is letters to the editor of news papers or magazines. They address issues or respond to articles previously written. They are often written with the following purposes.
1. To complain about something
2. To support an idea or a project.
3. To give opinions about something.
4. To give advice on something.
If you want your letter to be published you should be timely and respond within two or three days of the event or article. Short, concise letters are likely to be published than long ones that go round and round. Most people read shorter letters first and later perhaps read the longer ones.
Some guidelines.
a. State the argument you are responding to, as briefly as possible in the introduction of your letter.
b. Stick to a single subject. Deal with one subject per letter.
c. Do not be abusive. Editors tend to discard letters containing personal attack.
d. Your letter should be logically organized.
i. Introduction; explain the argument you are opposing or supporting.
ii. Statement of your position.
iii. Provide evidence.
iv. Close with a short restatement of your position or a pity comment.
e. Use facts, figures, and expert testimony whenever possible.
f. Read and do thorough research before you accuse anybody of anything.
g. Proofread your letter carefully for errors in spellings, punctuation, and grammar. Newspapers will always edit to correct these mistakes but your letter is likely to be published if it is ‘clean’ to begin with.
h. Don’t mail it the same day it is written. Write, edit and proofread it and then put it aside until the next day. Re-reading your letter in a fresh light often helps you to spot errors in reasoning, stilted language and the like.
i. Try to view your letter from the reader’s perspective. Will the argument make sense to someone without a special background on this issue? Did you use technical terms that are not familiar to the average reader?
j. Always include your name, title, address, phone number and signature. This information may not be published but they may use it to verify that you wrote the letter.
THE FORMAT OF EDITORIAL LETTER
COMPONENTS OF EDITORIAL LETTER
I. The name and address of the receiver
II. Salutation
III. Subject/short heading
IV. The main body
V. The ending
Example of Editorial letter.
Editor,
Mwananchi Newspaper,
P.O.Box 2020
Tabata-Dar-es-Salaam
Dear editor,
WATER PROBLEM AT BUSEGWE VILLAGE.
I would like to take this opportunity to appreciate the good work your Newspaper has been doing in keeping the public informed and educated on different socio-political and economic matters.
Although I am a regular reader of Mwananchi newspaper, it is my first time to appear in this column to express my deep concerns on the problem of water in our village Busegwe. Busegwe village is located just a few kilometres from Lake Victoria south of Musoma municipal. Nevertheless, since independence the problem of water has never been solved.
In my opinion, if really the leaders were serious enough about the welfare of their citizens, there is no way they would fail to supply piped water to the village which is located just few kilometres from the largest lake in Africa.
I would like to advice our MP his excellence hon. N.E. Mkono to stand up for this and see to it that water is supplied to our Village or else we are not going to re-elect him in the forth coming general election.
Yours faithfully,
Jamila Michael
A peasant
POBOX 1515
BUSEGWE-MUSOMA
E-mail; jamiam@gmail.com
Contacts 0772000333
