INTRODUCTION
TO LITERATURE
THE
THEORY OF LITERATURE
Meaning of
Literature
|
T
|
here is no single definition that suits the
meaning of literature. As a result there have been various attempts to define
the term literature. Some of these attempts are;
Literature is the work of art that uses the language
creatively to portray the message to the intended audience.
Literature is a work of art that uses the language creatively to express
human realities to the society.
Literature is an imaginative work of art that uses language to reflect social
realities.
Why is
literature said to be an art?
a. Language
use. The language of literature is different from the language of
everyday use (normal language). Literature uses figures of speech and words are
assigned an extra meaning than what they ordinarily imply. Some words carry
literal meaning and others have symbolic meaning. It is therefore advised not
to take words for granted in literature. You need to dig a bit deeper before
you settle and say this is what it means.
b. Characters and
characterisation. Literature uses real people or other characters
that represent real people in the outside world. Inanimate beings may be
personified in a way that they represent human qualities and act accordingly.
This adds artistic effect to the literary work. (more details are given
in subsequent chapters)
c. Choice and
presentation of incidents. Literature is not just a collection of
facts and stories to be reported. Incidents in literature are presented in
artistic way that makes the audience think that they are actually happening.
There is the use of skilful narrative technique like point of view, flashbacks,
foreshadowing, suspense, etc all these help the readers to visualise the events
as though they are just unfolding before their eyes.
Why is
literature said to reflect social realities?
Social realities are the things
that human beings experience in their daily lives. It is not mandatory that all
the incidents discussed in one literary work should be found in one society all
the time. Some issues become relevant and exist across time and space and later
become obsolete. So the themes that were once relevant in one society may be
irrelevant in the same society as time passes by.
Likewise, the themes that are relevant in one
part of the world may be irrelevant at another part of the world. However,
there are issues like corruption, classes, humiliation, betrayal, FGM,
HIV/AIDS, conflicts, position of women in the society, oppression,
exploitation, identity and awareness, effects of European culture on African
culture, etc which are common in African literature.
TYPES
OF LITERATURE
There are two major types of
literature namely oral and written literature.
ORAL
LITERATURE.
Anecdote –is a brief story about an interesting, amusing
or strange event. Writers tell anecdote or include them in a larger work, to
entertain the readers or to make a point.
Epic –is a long narrative poem, about the adventures of a
hero, whose actions reflect the ideals and values of a nation or a group. Epics
address universal concerns such as good and evil, life and death, and
other serious subjects. One of the famous epics in African literature is “The
Epic of Sundiata”
Fable- is a brief story or poem usually with animal characters that teaches a
lesson or a moral about life. Or is a very brief story in prose or verse that
teaches a moral, or a practical lesson about how to get along in life. The moral
is usually stated at the end of the fable. E.g. what goes around comes around’
or ‘do unto others what you would have them do unto you.’
Folk tale – is a story composed orally and then passed from person to person
by word of mouth. Or it is a simple story that has been passed down from
generation to generation by word of mouth. Folk tales are usually about
ordinary people, animals, or occurrences in nature and are usually set in time
long past. They originated from people who could neither read nor write. These
people entertained one another by telling stories aloud – often dealing with
heroes, adventure, magic, or romance. E.g. “why monkeys live in Trees”
Legend – is a widely told story about the past – one that may or may not
have a foundation in fact. Or is a story that is handled down from the past and
may tell about something that really happened, or someone who really lived.
Legends usually mix facts and fictions. Every culture has its own legends that
mean its familiar traditional stories.
Myths – is a fictional tale that explains the actions of gods, or
heroes, or the cause of natural phenomena (i.e. the origin of elements of
nature). Or it is a traditional story about the origins or workings of the
world. Some myths explain how certain things came into being; others explain
elements of nature or social customs. Myths that explain the origin of earthly
life are known as origin myths. They are composed orally and then
passed from generation to generation through word of mouth. Because myths have
been handled down from generation to generation for a long time their original
authors are usually unknown. The characters in myths are usually supernatural
beings. Every ancient culture has its own mythology.
Parables - a short story that teaches a moral or spiritual lesson,
especially one of those told by Jesus as recorded in the Bible. E.g. the
‘Prodigal son’, ‘the sower’, ‘The Rich man and Lazarus’ etc.
Ballad – is a song-like narrative poem that tells a story,
often one dealing with adventure and romance. Most ballads are written in four
– six – line stanzas and have regular rhythms and rhyme scheme. A ballad often
features a refrain – a regularly repeated line or group of lines at the end of
each stanza as in “A freedom Song by M. O Macgoye”.
Originally ballads were not written down. They were composed orally and then
sung. As these early folk ballads passed from singer to singer they often
changed dramatically. Even today modern ballads do not necessarily have four –
six – line stanzas and regular rhythms and rhyme scheme. As in The
Ballad of the Landlord by Lungston Hughes. A person who sings or
writes ballads is called a balladeer
Tall tale -this is an exaggerated far-fetched story that is
obviously untrue but is told as though it should be believed.Most tall
tells are humorous. As tales are passed on, they often get taller and taller –
more and more exaggerated.
WRITTEN
LITERATURE.
This is a type of literature
that presents the message through/ in written form. This began with the
invention of writings. This has two major forms. Fiction and
non-fiction
FICTION AND
NON-FICTION
NON-FICTION
LITERATURE.
This is a kind of literature that deals with factual
materials or events. The people written about in non-fictions are real.
Literary non fictions are written to be read just the same way as fictions.
These include;
Autobiography. This is an account of someone’s life and experiences
written by himself/herself. The person may choose to tell about an important
event from his/her life or tell the whole life story up to the time when it is
written. Forms of autobiography are; personal narratives, journals, memoirs,
diaries, letters etc. Autobiographies are almost always written in the first
person I. Example; “Gifted Hands” by Ben Carson and “The Narrative of Frederick
Douglas: An American Slave. Written by himself.
Biography. This is a story of someone’s life and experiences written by another
person. In biographies the author may choose to interview the biographical
subject and also gather information from other sources. The subjects of
Biographies are often famous people. E.g. Lincoln: A Photo biography. A
biographer is one who writes, composes or produces a biography.
Essay. This is a short piece of writing in which the writer shares
his/her point of view about a certain subject. Or is a short work of
non-fiction that usually deals with a single subject. Essays can be classified
as formal and informal, personal or impersonal. A formal essay is highly
organised, thoroughly researched, and serious in tone. An informal essay is
lighter in tone and usually reflects the writer’s feelings and personality.
Informational articles. These are articles that present factual materials
about a specific subject. They appear in newspapers, magazines, and in reference
books like Encyclopaedias, almanacs, and atlases.
FORMS OF NON-FICTION.
Nonfiction is broken down into four kinds of writing.
·
Exposition. This is a writing that explains something or gives
information about a topic.
·
Persuasion
or argumentation. This is a
writing that attempts to convince you of something by showing you that the
statement is true or false.
·
Description. Is a writing that helps you to form a clear
mental picture of something. Writers use specific details such as shapes,
tastes, sounds and textures to help you form the picture.
·
Narration. A writing that tells a story of an event or
series of events.
ORGANISATION OF NON-FICTION
There are three parts to most nonfiction writing.
i. Introduction. It
tells you the main ideas of what the piece is about. It may also give
background material or state a problem.
ii. The
body. It develops the main idea through the details that support the main
idea.
iii. Conclusion.
It shows that the work is ended. The conclusion may restate or summarize the
author’s main ideas, it may answer the question raised in the work or it may
urge the reader to future actions.
FICTION
It is a kind of literature that deals with non factual
materials or events. Characters, setting and events are the product of
imaginations from the author. It can be inspired by the actual events or
completely made up.
GENRES OF
FICTION LITERATURE
PROSE FICTION.
A prose is any kind of writing that is not poetry or
that is not presented in verse form or stanza. It is a specifically imaginative
work that includes short stories, novella and novels.
SHORT STORY
This is a story usually about imaginative characters
and events that is short enough to be read from the beginning to the end
without stopping. It is also a brief work of fiction that can generally be read
in one sitting. It usually focuses on one or two main characters that face a
single problem or conflict. For example, The voter by C. Achebe, Ajaiyi and
the Witchdoctor by A. Tutuola, Mabala the Farmer by R. Mabala. Etc.
ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
There are four basic elements
of a short story. These are Setting, plot, characters and theme. Short stories differ from the novel in its
treatment of these four elements. The main difference is partly dictated by
length. In short stories characters are usually not fully developed and usually
centre on one idea. Other minor elements include conflict, point of view,
symbolism, flashbacks, fictitious quality etc.
NOVELLA
This is a fiction work that is longer than a short
story but shorter than a novel. It is longer than a short story but the
characters are not fully developed as in novels. Example. Samuel Beckett’s
novella First Love. In this episode the unnamed narrator, who
spends most of the time lying prostrate on a park bench, begins to feel his
privacy threatened by the visitations of a woman to the same bench.
NOVEL is a work of fiction that is longer and more complex
than a short story. Or it is a fictional prose usually consisting of more than
fifty thousand words. (Probst, et al, 2000). In novels, setting,
plot characters and theme are fully developed in great details. Like a short
story the novel has four main elements, setting, plot characters and theme. A
person who writes novels is called a novelist E.g. Passed like a shadow
by B. Mapalala. The Interview, by P. Ngugi, etc.
DRAMA/PLAY
Is a literary genre that tells a story through actions
and dialogue and is written to be performed on stage by actors. Drama has the
same elements as those in novels and short stories. i.e. setting, plot
characters, theme, climax, conflict, symbolism, etc. An element that is unique
to drama is DRAMATIC TECHNIQUE. This includes:
ΓΌ Dialogue. These are the words that the characters speak in a play. It is a
conversation between characters. It is the dialogue that reveals the
character’s qualities, personality traits, and reactions to other characters.
ΓΌ Soliloquy/monologue. This is a speech made by a character when he/she is
alone on stage. Or it is a speech in which a character alone on stage,
expresses her thoughts and feelings aloud for the benefit of the audience,
often in a revealing way.
ΓΌ Aside. This is a direct address of the audience by a character. The other
characters do not hear what is being said.
ΓΌ Stage direction. These are the instructions/notes included in a
play/drama which describe how the work is to be performed or staged. They
indicate areas of the stage in which actors sit, stand, move, speak, exit,
enter, and so on, lighting, music, sound effect, costumes, emotional state,
etc.
These are typed in italics and
enclosed in the parentheses or brackets.
TYPES OF DRAMA
Tragedy
It is a serious drama/play with a sad ending
especially one in which the main character dies. The events in a tragic plot
are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment. Succeeding
events are linked in a cause-and-effect relationship and lead inevitably to a
disastrous conclusion, usually death. E.g. Oedipus the King, by
Sophocles. Julius Caesar by W. Shakespeare, Mfalme Juha by F Topan
etc.
A person who writes tragedies for the theatre or an
actor in a tragedy is called a tragedian. E.g. Sophocles,
Shakespeare, etc
Comedy
It is a dramatic work that is intended to be funny,
humorous and usually ends happily with a peaceful resolution of the main
conflict. To achieve a comic effect sometimes the playwrights use Mistaken
identity. Sometimes certain characters are mistaken about their
surroundings. They say or do things that would be appropriate in a
different social situation but are inappropriate in their surroundings. The
resulting confusion results to a silly series of events. The confusion of
characters causes a ridiculous conflict. The climax arrives when the characters
learn the truth. E.g. Juliette and Oko or Atangana and Abessolo in
Three Suitors One Husband. Other examples of comedies are The
trials of Brother Jero and The Lion and the Jewel both by W. Soyinka
An entertainer who makes people laugh by telling jokes
and funny stories is called a comedian/comedienne.
Tragic comedy
It is a dramatic work that combines the elements of
tragedy and comedy but here the hero/heroine does not end in danger or death. A
comic relief is a technique used to achieve this effect. This is a humorous
scene that is inserted into a serious work of drama to provide relief from the
seriousness felt by the audience.
Melodrama
A play that is full of exciting events and in which
the characters and emotions seem too exaggerated to be true/real. It is
accompanied with a melody –hence melody drama (melodrama)
Historical drama
This is a type of drama that expresses the history of
a particular society but usually contains some elements of tragedy and comedy.
E.g. Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi, Kinjeketile by E.Hussein
Other important
terms in drama.
·
Act. This is a major unit/part of action in a drama or
play.
·
Scene. This is a smaller section or a subdivision of one
act. So a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at one
time.
·
Costume. The clothes worn by actors in a play or
film/movie or worn by somebody to make them look like somebody or something
else. E.g. a student, a housemaid, a judge, etc.
·
Prop. A small object used by actors, during the
performance of a play or in a film/movie
·
Audience. Is a group of people sitting in a room,
auditorium or in the theatre listening to and watching a performance.
· Theatre. This is a special building or an outdoor area
where plays/movies/films and other entertainments are performed.
ELEMENTS OF
LITERATURE
Three are two major types of
Elements of Literature namely; Form and Content.
CONTENT
This has the following
elements:
THEME
This is a writer’s central idea, concern, or purpose
in a literary work. A theme can usually be expressed as a generalization or a
general statement about human beings or about life. Although a theme may be
directly stated in the text, it is more often presented indirectly. When the
theme is presented indirectly the reader must figure out what the theme is by
looking carefully at what the work reveals about people or about life. Common
themes in literature include classes, poverty, unemployment, oppression,
exploitation, corruption, marginalization, hypocrisy, love, identity, betrayal,
racial segregation / discrimination, effects of colonialism / neo-colonialism,
humiliation position of women in the society. Etc
MESSAGE/MORAL
This refers to the lesson taught by a literary work. A
poem, novel, short story or play often suggests a lesson/moral that is not
directly stated. The lesson must be drawn by the reader based on the other
elements of the work. E.g
ΓΌ United we stand, divided we fall.
ΓΌ What goes around comes around.
ΓΌ Do unto others what you would have them do to you
ΓΌ Children should be given the right to education
CONFLICT
A conflict is a struggle between opposing
forces. A conflict is one of the most important elements of stories,
novels and plays because it causes the actions. There are two kinds of
conflict:
Internal conflict
This takes place within the mind of a character. The
character struggles to make decision, take action, or overcome a feeling. For
example THONI in “The black hermit” has this kind of conflict that later forces
her to commit suicide.
External conflict
This is the one in which the character struggles
against some outside forces, such as another person. In this category we can
get further subdivisions of conflicts such as, economic conflict (rich vs.
poor), political conflict (leaders vs. Citizens), family conflict (among family
members), social conflict (one social group vs. Another), cultural conflicts
(modernism vs. Traditionalism) etc
RELEVANCE
This is the applicability of a literary work in
contemporary societies. We assess whether or not the author has been successful
in addressing the issues that are relevant to our lives currently. That is why
we believe that literary works do not develop in a vacuum but they usually
address issues in societies they evolve.
It is interesting however to note that a literary work
may not necessarily be relevant across time and across space. In one case, a
literary work might be relevant in one society but may be irrelevant in
another. In another case, a literary work that was once relevant in one society
might be irrelevant in the same society as time passes by. E.g. most literary
works that were about struggle for independence in Africa have now fallen out
of favour.
FORM
This refers to the structure of a literary work. It
has the following elements.
CHARACTERS/CHARACTERIZATION
Characterization is the act of creating and developing a
character. It is the way the writer reveals the personality of a character. A Character
- Is a person or an animal that takes part in the action of a literary work.
Authors use two major methods of
characterization; Direct and Indirect.
Direct Characterization. When using the direct characterization a writer
tells the characters’ traits or characteristics. E.g. brave, corrupt, weak etc.
Indirect Characterization. When using indirect characterization a writer
depends on the reader to draw conclusions /judgments about the characters’
traits by using the evidence the writer gives:
·
Through
the words of the character.
·
Through
the description of the character’s look and clothing.
·
Through
the description of the character’s feelings and thoughts.
·
Through
comments made about him by another character in the story.
·
Through
the characters behaviour.
CLASSIFICATION OF
CHARACTERS
There are different ways of
classifying the characters.
Major/main
character and minor character
The main or major character is
the one that is the most important in the story, poem or play. Usually the main
character appears from the beginning to the end of the story. E.g. Juliette.
While a minor character is the one that takes part in the action of a story but
is not the focus of attention. These help the main character to accomplish the
mission.
Flat character and
round character.
Flat character is usually one-sided and often
stereotypical. These characters are not well developed. They are introduced
more to shed light on the character of the major figure. While round
character on the other hand is fully developed with complete personality and
exhibits many traits, - often both faults and virtues. (strengths and
weaknesses)
Dynamic character
and static character
Dynamic character is the one who changes or grows in
the course of the story this one is complex and multifaceted like a real
person. E.g. Remi in “The Black Hermit”. While a static character is the one
who does not change. This one is one-dimensional. Like Mbarga in Three Suitors
One Husband.
Protagonist and
antagonist
A protagonist is the main character in a literary
work. Often a protagonist is a person but sometimes it can be an animal. An
antagonist is a character or a force that is in conflict with the main
character or protagonist.
Foil character
This is a character that provides a contrast to
another character. A writer uses a foil to accentuate and clarify the distinct
qualities of two characters. The word foil is also used for a thin
sheet of shiny metal that is placed beneath a gem to intensify its
brilliance. A character who is a foil, like the metal behind the
gem, sets off or intensifies the qualities of another character.
SETTING
The setting of a literary work is the place and time
of the action. Stories can be set in the present, past or future. What happens
in the story and how characters look and act often depends on the time when the
event took place. It may include the year, time of the day, even weather. The
place may be a specific country, state, region, community, neighbourhood,
building, institution, or at home. Details such as dialects, clothing, customs,
and modes of transportation are often used to establish the setting. The
setting can be real as in “Passed like a shadow” or imaginary as in Kusadikika.
STYLE
This is the way the writer uses the language. It is
also understood as the individual way in which a writer has used the language
to express his or her ideas. Style results from diction (word choice), sentence
structure and tone. One writer may choose to use many figures of speech another
may prefer to use straightforward language with few figures of speech.
POINT OF VIEW
We also look at the point of view. This is the
perspective or the vantage point from which the story is told. It is either the
narrator outside the story or a character inside the story. Three commonly used
points of view are first person, omniscient third person and limited third
person.
·
In
the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character
in the story and refers to himself or herself with the first person pronoun
“I”.
·
In omniscient
third-person point of view, the narrator knows and tells about what
each character feels and thinks.
·
In limited
third-person point of view the narrator relates the inner thoughts
and feelings of only one character and everything is viewed from this
character’s perspective.
PLOT
This is a sequence/arrangement of events in a literary
work. In most novels, dramas, short stories and narrative poems the plot
involves both the characters and a central conflict. Plot may be chronological
or flashback.
A
chronological plot is one that the incidents are arranged in the order they
occur. The plot usually begins with EXPOSITION that
introduces the setting, the characters and the basic situation. This is
followed by the introduction of the central conflict. The conflict increases
during the RISING ACTION until
it reaches the highest point of interest or suspense, THE CLIMAX. The climax is followed by
the FALLING ACTION or the
end of the conflict. These are events that during the falling action make up
the RESOLUTION or
Denouement.
The plot can also employ a flashback. This
is an interruption of the current action of a plot to show events that happened
at an earlier time. It breaks the normal forward movement of a narrative.
Although flashbacks often appear in the middle of the story it can also be
placed at the beginning. They give background information the audience needs to
understand in order to understand the present action.
Foreshadowing can
also be used. This is the use of clues/hints to suggest events that will occur
later in the plot. Foreshadowing is used to build suspense or anxiety in the
reader or viewer. E.g. the character prepares his gun and hides it somewhere;
this may foretell violence later in the
story.
LANGUAGE
USE/DICTION
This refers to the writer’s or speaker’s choice of
words. People use different types of words depending on the audience they are
addressing, the subject they are discussing and the effect they are trying to
produce. Diction is an essential element of a writer’s style and has a major
effect on the tone of the piece of writing.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
This is writing or speech that is not meant to be
taken literally. One has to dig deeper and uncover the underlying meaning. The
many types of figurative language are known as figures of speech.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
Definition:
· Figure of Speech is a word or group of words
that describes one thing in terms of another and is not meant to be understood
as literally true.
· A figure of speech is a word or phrase that
departs from everyday literal language for the sake of comparison, emphasis,
clarity, or freshness.
· Also known as, rhetorical figure, metaphorical language/
literary devices
Used
well, figures of speech greatly enhance your fiction, and can
be a very economical way of getting an image or a point across, but used
incorrectly, they will confuse the reader.The special emphasis is typically accomplished by the
user's conscious deviation from the strict literal sense of a word, or from the
more commonly used form of word order or sentence construction. From ancient
times to the present, such figurative locutions have been extensively employed
by orators and writers to strengthen and embellish their styles of speech and
composition. A number of the more widely used figures of speech, some of which
are also called tropes, follow.
1) Metaphor is a figure
of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things without
using the words “like or as”. A metaphor suggests that one thing is another
thing, or is equal to another thing. It uses a word or phrase denoting one kind
of idea or object in place of another word or phrase for the purpose of
suggesting a likeness between the two. Metaphors create vivid descriptions with
few words, as the subject of the comparison takes on the qualities of the thing
with which it is compared.
'He was a lion in the fight'.
In the biblical Book of Psalms, the writer speaks of
God's law as
“A light to his
feet and a lamp to his path.”
“The LORD is my
shepherd”
2) A simile is
a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things and uses
the words "like," "as," "than" or
"resembles". Or Simile is specific comparison by
means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or
objects. Similes make descriptions vivid by comparing their subjects
with known events or things. Effective similes help readers visualize what is
being described. Examples,
As cool as a
cucumber',
'As white as snow',
'Life is just like
an ice-cream, enjoy it before it melts',
“Christianity shone
like a beacon in the black night of paganism”
3) Irony:
It is the expression of ideas which are exactly opposite to the implied
meaning.
Or Irony is a disagreement or
incongruity between what is said and what is understood, or what is expected
and what actually occurs. Irony can be used intentionally or can happen
unintentionally. Authors can use irony to make their audience stop and think
about what has just been said, or to emphasize a central idea. The audience's
role in realizing the difference between what is said and what is normal or
expected is essential to the successful use of irony.
'A student of
psychology going insane',
'A bank lends you
money provided you show that it's not needed'
Or the warning found on
every cigarette pack, 'Smoking is injurious to health' is an
irony!
There are three
scenarios in which irony occurs.
a. Verbal irony is
when the intended meaning of the statement or work is different (often the
opposite of) what the statement or work literary says. For Example,
Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People is
ironically used since Dr. Stockman who is declared an enemy, is in really
sense, and is a friend of the people.
b. Situational Irony occurs
when what happens is contrary to what is expected; or the actual outcome of a
situation is the opposite of what is expected. For example
The son of the English teacher fails the
English Exam.
The daughter of a rich merchant is expelled
from school for lack of school fees of 20,000/=.
c. Dramatic Irony occurs
when events or facts not known to the character on stage in a fictional work,
are known to another character and the audience or reader. E.g. Oedipus
the King.
4) Personification: It is a
representation of abstract ideas or inanimate objects as having human
attributes or qualities. OrPersonification is the representation of
inanimate objects or abstract ideas as living beings. Personification connects
readers with the object that is personified. Personification can make
descriptions of non-human entities more vivid, or can help readers understand,
sympathize with, or react emotionally to non-human characters.
'Death laid
its icy hands on kings',
“Necessity is the
mother of invention
“the mountains
cried, the valleys wept, and the hills wailed all mourning the death of
Nyerere.
5) Apostrophe:
It is a direct address to the dead or an inanimate object creating an emotional
surge. In Apostrophe,an actor turns from the audience, or a
writer from readers, to address a person who usually is either absent or
deceased, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea. As in John Donne’s “Death
Be Not Proud”
'Caesar, only if you were alive'
'O stone, O might, O heart of man-made God,
Thou art the emblem of our hope',
6) Rhetorical question is
the act of asking questions not to gain information but just for emphasis. No
answer, in fact, is expected by the speaker. The device is illustrated in the
following series of sentences:
“Did you help me when I needed help? Did you once
offer to intercede in my behalf? Did you do anything to lessen my load?”
7) Hyperbole/overstatement is
a figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for emphasis or for
humorous effect. In exaggeration a person or thing is depicted as being better
or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually the case. It is, used
often to ridicule, create humour or any drastic emotional appeal.
'The waves rose as
high as the mountains,'
'I am so hungry that I
can eat a whole cow'
'She wept and wept
until there was a sea of tears'.
8) Litotes/ understatement:
It is an understated expression when the actual idea to be expressed is quite
significant. It is like downplaying an idea when it seems to be the best
possible course of action or description. Statements such as,
'I was not feeling
unhappy”. Meaning I was feeling happy
“The English poet Thomas Gray showed no
inconsiderable powers as a prose writer, “meaning that Gray was in fact a
very good prose writer
I am not unmindful- meaning I mind
9) Euphemism, this
is the substitution of an offensive/unpleasant term or phrase by the one that
has pleasant associations, as in the use of “lavatory” or “rest room” for
“toilet,” and “pass away” for “die.”
10) Metonymy is a figure of
speech that associates the name of one thing with that of something else. This
is a word that substitutes for an object, the name of an attribute or concept
associated to that object. The use of ‘crown’ for ‘king’ or
for the government ruled by a king is an example of a metonym.
a. “We waited hopelessly for two sunsets”
“Sunsets” here implies two days,
b. “He has a good name in
our society.” Or,
“They spoilt his name.” “Name”
refers to reputation
c. “A press conference by the “Statehouse”.
Here,statehouse refers to the officials of the Statehouse who will
be holding the press conference.
A metonym is not necessarily one word. As in a hotel
-“Room 44 needs a bottle of champagne” “Room 44”
here refers to the customer who is in that room.
d. “The hostess kept a
good table,” when “good food” is implied.
11) Synecdoche: is a figure of
speech in which the whole is represented by a part or a part by the whole is
called as synecdoche. Example
'He has several mouths to feed'. Here mouths represent
people.
“50 head of cattle; “head” is used to
mean whole animals,
“The president's administration contained the best “brains”
in the country; “brains” is used for intellectually brilliant
persons.
12) Onomatopoeia, imitation of
natural sounds by words. Examples in English are the italicized words in the
phrases
“The humming bee,”
“The cackling hen,”
“The whizzing arrow,”
“The buzzing saw.”
The Hissing snake,
The
Splashing water,
The
Bang of a door.
13) Oxymoron: This is a
figure of speech which includes words or ideas opposite in meaning placed one
after the other. Oxymoron combines two seemingly contradictory or
incongruous words.
·
'True
lies',
·
'Open
secret',
·
'Pretty
ugly face',
·
'Feeling
alone in a crowd’,
·
Living
deaths,
·
Dear
wounds,
·
Fair
storms,
·
Silent
noise
·
Freezing
fires
·
Pain
for pleasure
·
Clearly
confused
·
Cruel
kindness
·
Deafening
silence
·
Only
choice
·
Random
order
·
Alone
together
·
Awfully
good
·
Dark
light
·
Light
darkness
·
Appear
invisible
·
Goodbye
reception.
·
Growing
smaller
·
True
myt
Unpopular
celebrity
·
Worthless
gold
·
Sad
joy
·
Sweet
agony
·
Daydream
in the night
14) Paradox, this
is a figure of speech which includes a statement or sentiment that appears
contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Simply put it is a statement
that seems to contradict itself but is, nevertheless, true. These
statements or assertions, according to logic, cannot be true, yet the figure
links them in a way that creates a new meaning, one that defies logic but works
on situation. Example of paradox is found in Martin Luther’s speech “I
Have a Dream”
“..The Negro is still languished in the corners of
American society and finds himself an exile in his own land”
In the above sentence, logically speaking, one cannot
be in exile while he is still in his own land, as the true meaning of the word
exile is. But the situation described, is the one that makes us see as if the
Negros are in exile, since they have nothing to enjoy in their own land.
15) Climax, It is the arrangement of
ideas in an increasing order of their importance. It emphasizes the meaning in
a clear and effective way. Or it is the arrangement of words,
clauses, or sentences in the order of their importance, the least forcible
coming first and the others rising in power until the last, as in the following
sentences:
“It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen; it
is a crime to scourge him; it is almost parricide to kill him; but to crucify
him—what shall I say of this?”
'He came, he saw, he conquered, 'her village,
her state, her nation were her pride',
'Eat, drink and sleep' and so on.
16) Anticlimax is a sequence of
ideas that abruptly diminish in dignity or importance at the end of a sentence
or passage, generally for satirical effect. The following sentence contains an
illustration of anticlimax:
“Among the great achievements of Benito Mussolini's
regime were the revival of a strong national consciousness, the expansion of
the Italian Empire, and the running of the trains on time.”
17) Antithesis is a juxtaposition of two words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences contrasted or opposed in meaning in such a way as to give
emphasis to contrasting ideas. An example of antithesis is the following line
by the English poet Alexander Pope: “To err is human, to forgive divine.”
“The LORD gave and the LORD has taken away.
18) Conceit, it is an elaborate,
extended and sometimes surprising comparison between things that, at first
sight, do not have much in common. It is also defined as an elaborate, often
extravagant metaphor or simile making an analogy between totally dissimilar
things. The term originally meant “concept” or “idea.” The use of conceits is
especially characteristic of 17th-century English metaphysical poetry. An
example occurs in the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” by the English
poet John Donne, in which two lovers' souls are compared to the legs of drawing
compasses.
19) Allusion is a literary device in
which the writer or speaker refers either directly or indirectly to a famous
person, event, place or thing in history, religion, mythology, politics,
sports, science or to a work of art or literature. Allusion connects the
content of a text with the larger world. Allusion calls to mind the ideas and
emotions associated with a well-known event or published work. Those ideas and
emotions then contribute to what the author conveys. As in Martin Luther’s
speech
"Four score and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."
20) Parallel structure /parallelism / Parallel
constructionis a repetition of the same pattern of words or phrases within
a sentence or passage to show that two or more ideas have the same level of
importance. Parallel structure helps to organize ideas, making a text or speech
easier to understand. Parallel structure can also create a satisfying rhythm in
the language an author uses. In this literary device, the idea to be
stated is repeated in some other form to emphasize the articulation.
'She cried, she wept but he was unmoved',
'Show me your strength, your stamina, your energy only
where it is needed'
21) Anaphora Also called epanaphora,
the repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive phrases
for rhetorical or poetic effect, as in Lincoln's
"We
cannot dedicate-
We cannot consecrate-
We cannot hallow this ground"
I am a true Acoli
I am not a half-caste
I am not a slave girl
22) Imagery This is a figure of
speech which creates mental pictures that appeal to readers, five
senses. Writers use sensory details to make readers imagine how
things look, feel, smell, sound and taste. There are different types of images
depending on the five senses.
Visual image- this is an image of sight e.g.
Greater than the Rift-Valley;
Camera film to light, coils of
the greatest python
Stronger than the blows of the sea
When the hurricane is at its
height.
Organic image -this is an image of feeling
Dying in agony
More painful than the yell
Audio image – this is an image of sound
The yell of a woman
I plead the cry of the nation
The screams of a man
Kinetic image -this is an image of motion.
Is faster than camera film
But as slow as tropism
I declare running Better
than walking
Tactile image - this is an image of touch
As it falls on the
seemingly soft soil
ΓΌ Standing hard and
ready..
Olfactory
image – this is an
image of smell. a stinking room
Gustatory
image. This is an
Image of taste
In search of sweetness
Thermal image this is an image of heat.
23) Anadiplosis; the repetition in which the last expression of one
statement becomes the first expression in the following statement. As in the
poem “Africa” by David Diop
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery
The slavery of your children
24) Symbolism is a literary device
that uses one object to stand for something else or to mean
something else. Actions can also be symbolic, such as washing hands to indicate
non-involvement. Some symbols are universal, with generally accepted
meanings, such as a crown to mean superiority or the colour red to mean danger.
Symbols, especially specific ones, often mean more than one thing.
Sunrise symbolizes the beginning of the struggle and sunrise
symbolizes the end of the struggle in the poem “Sunrise”
25) Pun - It is a humorous play on two or more meanings
of the same word or on two different words with the same sound. It is also
understood as a play on the multiple meanings of the word or on two words that
sound alike but have different meanings. It uses words that
have similar or identical sounds but very different meanings. Quite often it is
used to pass a witty remark or bring about a sarcastic effect. Examples are,
"It is better to have loved a short person and
lost, than never to have loved A TALL."
'I KNEAD the dough so that I can eat',
Another
good pun is found in the last but one line of Shakespeare’s “When My Love
Swears That She Is Made of Truth.” He says;
‘Therefore,
I LIE with her and she with me’ Shakespeare
Sonnet 138
26) Allegory is a form of extended metaphor,
in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the
meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has
moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are
often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.
Thus an allegory is a story
with two levels of meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.
A more modern example of allegory is George Orwell’sAnimal Farm,
which on the surface level is about a group of animals who take over their farm
but on the deeper level is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the
shortcomings of the Communism.
27) Anastrophe: Also known as inversion,
it is a sentence or a poetic expression which reverses or changes the order of
words for greater emphasis. The following are examples of anastrophe.
'Ten thousand saw I
at a glance' instead of “I saw ten thousand at a glance”
‘Forward they go”
which is not a normal English structure of SVA. ‘They go forward’
‘And away they go’
instead of ‘and they go away’
‘While your hive
they plunder’ instead of ‘while they plunder your hive’.
28) Satire
Is a literary technique which principally ridicules
its subject which includes individuals, organization or states often as an
intended means of provoking or preventing changes. Satire is any piece of
writing that uses devices such as irony. It is a text or performance that uses
irony, derision or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness or stupidity.
ROLES
/FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE
Since literature does not develop from a vacuum, but
from the society in which it emanates, it has got different roles to play in
the society. The following are some of the most important functions of
literature in the society.
i. Literature
educates people in the society.
Literary works are used to impart knowledge to the
members of the society. It creates awareness on different social political and
economic matters taking place in their societies. It educates the young people
on how they are expected to behave in accordance with the demands of their
societies and the roles they are required to fulfil.
ii. Literature expresses people’s culture.
Since literature develops from the society, it
automatically expresses the culture of its people. All cultural aspects like
traditions, beliefs, customs, norms etc are expressed so that the society may
cherish the good ones and carry them over to the next generations, and modify
or discard the outdated ones.
iii. Literature is used to entertain people.
Most literary
works appeal to the emotions. By reading, listening and watching literary
works, we get entertained. Poems and dramas create an enjoyment to the audience
different from one we get when we are eating food. Literary enjoyment is called
aesthetic pleasure. E.g. Comedies and melodrama.
iv. Literature is used to influence people in the society.
More often than not people who are interested in
watching, listening and reading literary works are tempted to act like those
characters in the respective literary work. During the struggle for
independence for example literary works were used to instil revolutionary ideas
to the oppressed to take up arms against the oppressor. Consider the poem “Your
Pain” by Armando Guebuza.
v. Literature is used to develop language.
By reading, listening and watching literary works,
people improve their language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and
writing. People may also improve their vocabulary stock since they will not
only come across a number of new words but also know how they are used in real
contexts. Authors do also come with new words, phrases, idioms, figures of
speech, that help to develop the language.
vi. Literature is used to liberate people mentally and physically.
Literary works
present the message that helps to liberate the society mentally as a result
they liberate themselves physically. It conscitizes the society about the
existence of oppressive systems and suggest ways to get rid of those systems.
E.g. United we stand, divided we fall.
vii. Literature is used to criticize the society.
Literature may be used to criticise the society in a
sense that it points out the burning issues and requests the society to resolve
them. More often than not literary artists point out the evils done by the
traditional society e.g. Perpetuating the outdated customs like FGM,
Widow Inheritance, forced marriages etc. and ask the society to discard them.
They may also point the wrongs done by the ruling class and suggest the ways to
get rid of these leaders.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH
