INTRODUCTION
TO LANGUAGE
What is
Language?
The
term language has been defined variably by different scholars.
However there are some common concepts that most of them do agree that must
constitute any reliable definition of language. Given below are some of the
different attempts to define the term language.
Language is a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates. (Bloch and
Trager 1942)
Language is a system of vocal
symbols used for human communication. (Wardaugh,
1972)
Language is a system of conventional spoken
or written symbols, by means of which human beings,
as members of a social group and participants, in its culture communicate.
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Language is
a learned, shared and arbitrary system of vocal symbols through
which human beings in the same speech community interact and hence communicate
in terms of their cultural experience and expectation.
Language is
a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed from one human
being to another.
Key
concepts in the definition of language.
a) System,
This is a
group of things or parts working together in a regular relation. A system
assembles together units which form a regular and connected whole. The same is
true with language because it assembles units which form a regular and
connected whole. The language is constituted by subsystems which involve speech
sounds (sound system/Phonetic system), phonological system, morphological
system, syntactical system, semantic system, lexical system)
SUBSYSTEMS
(i).
Phonetic system.
Linguists talk about phonetics as a way of describing how sounds are produced,
transmitted and interpreted in the brain. Each language must have these three
stages, production (articulatory phonetics), transmission (acoustic phonetics);
and reception (auditory phonetics)
(ii).
Phonological system. Each language has got its own sound system. Phonology deals with sound
system of a particular language, e.g. English language has 24 vowels Kiswahili
only 5. It deals with how sounds are articulated, (manner of articulation),
where (place of articulation), State of the glottis (voiced / voiceless), and
the cavity through which the air escapes (nasal / Oral).
(iii).
Lexical system (word formation/vocabulary)
Each
language has its own way of forming new vocabularies. For example English has
the following, affixation, blending, compounding, borrowing, conversion (zero
derivation), acronyms, clipping, etc
(iv).
Morphological system
Is the study
of how words are formed out of smaller meaningful units traditionally called
Morphemes. Morphemes are regarded as word building blocks.
For Syal and
Jindal (2007:20) morphology studies the patterns of formation of words by the
combination of sounds into minimal distinctive units of meaning called
morphemes.
Eg.Dis-establish-ment-al-ism
=disestablishmentalism
Inter-nation-al-ity =
internationality
(v).
Syntactical system- each language has a syntactic system that deals with how words are
combined to form phrases, and how phrases are combined to form clauses and how
clauses are combined to form sentences and sentences combined to form
paragraphs and so on.
(vi).
Semantic system – each
language has a way of assigning meanings to its symbols (words). And for
someone to know the language is to know what referents do those symbols refer
to. E.g.
Look
for=search/find,
look
into=examine,
look
after=take care of,
look
in= visit casually.
There are
also other subsystems like tense system, system of personal
pronouns, etc
b) Symbol.
A symbol is
something that represents something else. Language is said to be a symbol
because it consists of the words which represent objects, ideas, concepts as
well as people. So language uses acoustic images or graphic signs to represent
realities. Every language has its own symbols which represent all its physical
and conceptual experience. E.g. Cup, house,
c) Arbitrariness
The
linguistic symbols are arbitrary because each language community picks them
very haphazardly. There is no any formal relationship between the words and
what they mean. E.g. there is no particular reason why the dog, or cow, or
table was named so. They could be named otherwise. That’s why we have different
words in different languages. However there are some few exceptions of
linguistic forms whose sounds or structures relate to physical reality. This is
the case of onomatopoeic words (words which represent sounds
made by those objects) like nyau (cat) pikipiki (motorcycle)
andidiophonic words (which show the intensity of something)
like mweupe pee, mweusi tii.
d) Vocal
The word
vocal refers to something related to sound. As you know language is primarily
made of sounds that are produced by physiological mechanisms. It is interesting
to note that even when the language is written the letters represent sounds.
e) Conventional.
Language
uses symbols/signs that must be accepted by the people of a particular speech
community to use for communication. That’s why speakers of one language can
understand each other while those of other languages cannot. The sentence we
are very happy today is accepted in English butare very
happy today we is not acceptable.
Also some
words/terminologies may be formed to supplement for new objects or situations
but if not accepted by that speech community, they die a natural death. Eg
Swahili words like mkurufunzi (student), tonoradi(atom) mlisho
wa nyuma (feedback) kurunzi (torch) they
are not often used.
Some words
may be well-formed in a particular natural language yet they may not be
accepted in that particular speech community because of being considered ugly
or because of having negative contention according to the cultural values of
that particular speech community.
The
following words were coined but not accepted since they were considered ugly.
The
word stagflation to refer to the combination of economic
stagnation and high level of inflation around
1970s. Other words aretalkathon, swimathon, knitathon,
etc. by the analogy to marathon. This is misanalysis of –athon as
a suffix which means {undertaking a strenuous prolonged activity} in Greek –athon was
not a morpheme.
f) Learnability.
Human
languages must be learnt. Although children unconsciously acquire competence in
language at some stages they must be taught by their teachers, parents or
siblings. For example a dog will bark, a donkey will bray, a sheep will bleat,
a frog will croak just the same way anywhere in the world without any formal
lessons or imitations.
g) Human.
Language is
said to be human because it’s only human beings who are capable of possessing
and using language. Animals are said to have no languages as do human beings
though they communicate. Unlike animals human beings are born with a Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) which helps them to pick any language when exposed to
it. There are different characteristics that differentiate human language from
animal communication.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF HUMAN LANGUAGE.
a) Arbitrariness
The
linguistic symbols are arbitrary because each language community picks them
very haphazardly. There is no any formal relationship between the words and
what they mean. E.g. there is no particular reason why the dog, or cow, or
table was named so. They could be named otherwise. That’s why we have different
words in different languages.
b) Displacement.
Humans
languages are able to express /communicate about things that are absent and
things that are, present, past or future. That’s to say we can also talk about
abstract concepts and things that are far away in terms of time and place. E.g.
we can talk about colonialism that took place in Africa some years ago.
Conversely a dog cannot tell you what it did yesterday or what it is going to
do tomorrow.
c) Cultural
transmission.
Language is
culturally transmitted from one generation to the next. Also human language
acts as a medium of transmitting the culture of a particular society from one
generation to another. The transmission is done as young ones learn
the language
d) Discreteness.
The sounds
of human language are meaningfully distinct. For instance the wordsman and ban differ
from each other in only one sound. As you can see the different in only one
sound is sufficient enough to cause difference in meaning. So we can
identify sounds like /d/, /p/, /k/, /g/,/i/ etc which is not the case with animal
communication. This discreteness helps us to distinguish words like, pig
and big, pack and back, come and some, go and so etc
e) Duality.
Language
consists of two levels, the sound level and the level of meaning. At the sound
level we pronounce sound units or phonemes which are similar in number to the
basic sounds possessed by animals. The average number is between 30 and 40. But
each phoneme is meaningless in isolation. The phonemes become meaningful only
when they are combined with other phonemes. Take a look at the following sounds
in isolation and say what they mean.
/f/,/v/,/k/,/g/,/d/,/t/,/o/,/u/,/a/,/e/,/ʋ/,/ə/.
Compare when they are combined /gəʋ/ = go, /væn/ = van, are these words
meaningful? Of course yes.
f) Productivity/creativity
Language
allows speakers/writers to produce and understand new utterances never heard or
produced before. That means it is possible for someone to pronounce new (novel)
sentences which has never been said before and still be understood. It is also
possible for someone to understand new sentences produced by others. E.g.
someone may say “phonology is a linguistic study of speech
sounds” you might not have heard this sentence before;
nevertheless, you may understand it.
g) Interchangeability/Reciprocity
Language
allows communicators to exchange positions. At one point the communicator is
the speaker, but at the other he becomes the listener. When one person is
speaking the other is listening and when the listener starts responding the
speaker becomes the listener. This property of language is calledinterchangeability
or reciprocity.
h) Reflexiveness.
This is the
ability of human language to talk about itself. A sentence like “English is
an international language” is just one case of how language can talk about
itself. This property makes human language different from animal communication.
i) Specialization
Human
language has specialized terms for some expressions. For example a male head of
a secondary school is called Headmaster while a female is called headmistress,
also there are special terms for adult and young animals; e.g. goat-kid,
cat-kitten, cow-calf etc. There are special terms related to movements
depending on its nature. For example;
Swagger - to walk in an extremely proud
and confident way.
Toddle – walk with short and unsteady
steps.
Run – to move using your legs
faster than you walk.
Walk –to move or go somewhere by
putting one foot in front of the other on the ground.
Trot - to run or walk very fast
taking short quick steps.
March – to walk with stiff regular
steps like a soldier.
Jogging – to run slowly and steadily for a
long time especially for exercise.
Stagger – to walk unsteadily especially
due to drinking alcohol.
(J) Patterning.
Human
language has internal organization within the system. It is not just a heap of
isolated items. Humans do not use sounds and words in a random way like [are in
there vowels English twenty only four} but {In English there are twenty four
vowels only}
Sometimes
changing the patterns also changes the meaning. Consider the following
sentences
Nancy NEARLY
won Tsh 2,000,000/=
Nancy won
NEARLY Tsh 2,000,000/=
FUNCTIONS
OF LANGUAGE
There are
many functions of language although most people know that language is used for
communication only. In this study we are going to see that language does much
more than just facilitating communication. Some functions of the language
include the following:
(1)
Communication function.
This is the
function that most people would select as the principal function of language.
It is true that communication is the most dominant function of language.
Communication is a two way process. In one way we are able to use language to
express ourselves to others, and conversely, we use language to understand what
others are communicating to us.
E.g. if
the teacher asks the question in class and the students respond by answering
that is a communication function of language.
(2)
Phatic/interactional function. (For the purposes of sociability)
The word
phatic comes from Greek and means ‘utterance’. The term was coined by
Malinowski, who discovered that much of what we say is formulaic and found that
the same is true of all languages. He is suggesting that language is the glue
which links people together.
Expressions
such as,
Good
morning,
Hello,
how are you,
God bless
you!,
Let’s go
home,
Let’s go
to the play room
How nice
to meet you. How are you?
Phatic
function of language is used when one wants to open communication channels.
Communication can hardly begin without a greeting. The phatic function of the
language is mainly spoken but there are some written
equivalents. E.g. for starting and ending a letter, Hello
Dear.........., Yours faithfully, sincerely, truly,
(3).
Emotive / expressive function (Intrapersonal communication / physiological )
for the purpose of releasing nervous.
Language is
also used to express personal emotions. A great deal of what we say when angry
or happy is said just to relieve the physical and nervous energy. E.g. words
like Shit!, Fuck!. Also imagine the football fan watching
tv giving instructions to the player. Go on! Don’t mess
about! For God’s sake shoot! The instructions are perfectly
useless; they serve no communicative purpose.
“Wow!
It’s wonderful!”
“Oh! My
goodness! What happened to you?”
“Oh! I’m
sorry.”
“The meal
was excellent”
“Go to
hell” “To hell with your dirty money”
(4)
Instrumental/Regulatory/directive Function
Language is
also used for the purpose of warning or imparting discipline into the minds of
the people. Think of what politicians and religious leaders do when asking for
votes and preaching respectively. They use language to win people’s respects.
Also teachers in school may give commands to students to get things
done. E.g.
“Clean
the blackboard”
“Whose
bag is that on the floor?”
In this case
language is used to give directions by which things are done. In expressions
like “on your mark, go!,” “sit down,” “don’t disturb me”, “put your
bags down”. The instructions make things happen although the other
part does not reply back but does actions.
(5)
Reasoning function (as an instrument of thought).
It is argued
that speaking while thinking makes the speakers concentrate on what they are
thinking. A majority of thinking is done in words. A common view of language is
that it is an instrument/tool of thought. Even writings and speaking begins
with thoughts. Language not only expresses thought but also creates it.
E.g. the
owner of the house looking at his wall while he’s alone may say “if I
use Twiga cement I will not need any more rehabilitation. But I do not have
enough money to buy 4 bags of cement now. Well, I’ll see my friend and ask him
to lend me some money. ”Or think of someone making mathematical
calculations alone. “Two time two equals to four”
(6)
Recording function.
Language is used to record something we
wish to remember for future use. It can be a short time record like a shopping
list or a long term record like in a diary or history of some kind. Think of
the Bible, Quran and legal documents like the constitutions. These documents
here serve a recording function of the language. They do not serve the
communicative function.
(7)
Identifying function.
Language has a function of identifying
and classifying things, places, people and social classes. For instance it is
easy to know the person’s place of origin by simply hearing his/her pronunciation.
Also learning the names of things allows us to refer quickly and accurately to
them. To take a fairly simple example let us consider all those terms which
classify types of residences: house, maisonette, flat, caravan, bungalow,
castle, mansion, palace and hut.
(8)
Performative/declarative function
Language can
also be used for declarative purposes in such a way that the expressions given
may change the state of affairs in the world after they have been pronounced by
the appropriate authority in appropriate situation. Try to imagine what happens
in occasion such as wedding ceremony, meetings, church masses, and courts of
law. It is normal to hear expressions like;
“I
pronounce you husband and wife”
“I
sentence you ten years of imprisonment”
“I
baptize you in the name of the Father, of the Son and of the Holy Spirit”
“I
officially declare the meeting opened”
“I swear
to tell the truth”
“This
meeting is adjoined”
For example
if the pastor declares “I pronounce you husband and wife” you automatically
become so. Here language is said to have performed. This function is also known
as Declarative function.
(9)
Poetic/aesthetic Function
Language is
sometimes used artistically or aesthetically. In literature the meaning of
words can be widened or narrowed. Also the use of devices like onomatopoeia,
alliteration and assonance all draw on the pleasure we find in poetry, as do
rhythm and rhyme. This use of words to achieve an artistic effect is termed as
poetic function of the language. Consider the following;
“Ester
was given bundles of kisses on her wedding”
“You are
as expensive as tanzanite”
“Debora
is indeed an angel of this class”
“Feel
free friend Faith”
(10)
Metalinguistic function.
Language can
also be used to talk about itself. For instance now we are using the language
to talk about language. Such use is termed as metalinguisticfunction.
Linguists describe various aspects of language such as word classes, phrases,
clauses, pronunciation etc. E.g.
“Linguistics
is a scientific study of language”.
“Linguist
is a person/scholar who studies language scientifically”
(11)
Informative/referential function.
Language is
also used as a medium of passing or conveying factual information. It is used
to inform about something that happened, is happening or is going to happen.
Also when someone needs help may inform others who can help. Consider the
following utterances.
Dady’s
giving a speech tonight.
Would you
help me if you were in my shoes?
We are
leaving now.
It’s cold
in here.
LANGUAGE
VERSUS A LANGUAGE
When we talk
about a language (with an article “a”) we are referring to a specific language
in mind whereas language (without article ‘a’) refers to the general
characteristics of language with no specific language in mind.
So A
Language is defined as a form of speech that is mutually
comprehensible among the members of community who use it. A language may be that
of a small community like our tribe languages, or may be of a larger community
like international languages. Eg Kiswahili, English French, etc
Each and
every language is capable of expressing the whole culture of its speakers. But
languages change with time as the culture of the community also changes.
ROLES
/IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE IN THE SOCIETY.
The
importance of human language should never be confused with the functions of
language. By functions we mean what we do with language or
what language does. By importance we mean what the effects of
using the language are. That is to say after language has been used something
happens as a result. The significance of human language can be looked at in the
following aspects.
a. Language
as a unifying/dividing factor.
Language can
be used as a unifying factor in a sense that it brings together people of
different backgrounds, and cultural diversities. For example
Kiswahili language has united over 120 cultures of Tanzania and feel like one
people. Also English is a lingua franca of the world that helps to bring people
of different nations together.
There are
also some cases where language is used as a dividing factor. Sometimes people
create enmity with others simply because they speak different languages. Think
of what happened in Rwanda between the Ttusi and Hutu.
b. Language
as a factor for national identity.
Language is
one of the many ways which identify nations and people in the world. When
people are out of their home countries one of the simplest way of knowing where
they come from is by using the language they speak. E.g. an African speaking
Kiswahili will be thought of coming from Tanzania or East Africa. Likewise a
European speaking French (from France), German (from Germany), Chinese (from
China) Gujarat (from India) etc. Consider this example from the bible
Matthew
26:73 “And
after a while those who stood by, came to him and said to Peter, Surely you
also are one of them; because your speech betrays you” (NKJV)
However, a
caution should be taken that not all people who speak a particular language
come from the country where it is natively spoken. It is possible to find a
Korean speaking English nevertheless that does not imply that he/she comes from
England though you can still be able to tell from his accent that he/she is not
a native speaker of English.
c. Language
as a factor for social stratification.
Language is
also used to classify people into different social classes. The class to which
a member of the society belongs is largely determined by the way he/she uses
language among other things. Different social classes use language differently
in terms of choice of vocabulary, pronunciation, and other aspects of language.
So it is possible to stratify people as
Village
dwellers vs Urban dwellers
Educated
vs Uneducated
Farmers
vs workers
Muslims
vs Christians
Upper
class vs Lower class.
Men vs
women
d. Language
as a mirror or cultural and physical realities.
Language
reflects a variety of customs, knowledge, traditions and beliefs. Words making
up a particular language reflect the culture of that community. E.g. the
Kiswahili word Ugali is found in most Bantu languages because they eat that
kind of food. But it lacks its equivalent in English because it is not part of
the culture of the native English speaking communities. Unless it is borrowed,
it cannot be expressed in English language. Also the Swahili word makuti is
another case in point.
e. Language
as a factor for social development.
Human beings
normally use language to coordinate and promote social activities and services
like education, hospitals, housing etc. For example policy makers communicate
their policies to implementers and the implementers put them in action. Also
language facilitates trading activities, and that is why sometimes translators
and interpreters are needed to facilitate communication where there is no common
language.
f. Language
as a tool of communication. (information exchange)
With
language we are able to communicate in various events in the form of greetings,
telephone conversation, discussions, rallies, e-mails, mass media like TV,
radio, newspapers and the internet. So this can be considered as the most
important role of language so far. Try to imagine how life would have been with
the absence of language.
KNOWLEDGE
OF LANGUAGE
Competence
and Performance
COMPETENCE
This refers
to the person’s internalised grammar of language. It is the subconscious
ability that helps someone to judge the grammaticality of expressions used in a
certain language. It helps someone to create and understand sentences including
sentences he/she has said or heard before. For example an English speaker is
likely to say that this sentence is grammatically incorrect, “I will eat rice
last week”. Interestingly, a person who judges the grammaticality of what is
said is not necessarily a linguist. A person may correct your grammatical
mistake but may not be able to give reason for that correction.
PERFORMANCE.
This refers
to the actual use of a language in actual/concrete situations. In other words
it refers to what people actually say or understand by what someone else says on
a given situation. In most cases poor/imperfect performance is not necessarily
a reflection of competence. That is because a person who is very competent in a
language may exhibit poor performance due to, slip of tongue,
tiredness/boredom, drunkenness, sickness, etc.
ERRORS
AND MISTAKES IN LANGUAGE.
ERRORS
These are
violations committed by people who have not mastered the language. They show
the level which one has reached in language acquisition. For example a child/a
person who has not mastered a language, violates a lot of grammatical and
pronunciation rules. This shows that the child/the person is in the process of
acquiring/learning the language. Sometimes it is hard for them to correct
themselves. A child might say “my mom gived me a gift yesterday” and may
not realize that he/she has made an error.
MISTAKES
These are
violations made by people who have mastered the language. Sometimes the person
immediately corrects himself/herself after making a mistake but a person who
commits an error may not correct himself/herself because he/she does not
realize whether she/he has made an error. But a competent person who utters the
expression like, “my mother gived me a gift yesterday” is likely to
correct that utterance immediately and say “oh! Sorry “she gave me a gift
yesterday”. This is what we technically call a mistake.
BASIC
LANGUAGE CONCEPTS.
a) Linguistics
This is the
scientific study of language. As a scientific study it involves scientific
procedures like observation, data collection, data analysis, hypothesis
formulation, experimenting and conclusion. It also applies principles and
theories from different scholars. There are many branches of linguistics
including; historical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics,
philosophical linguistics, comparative linguistics etc.
b) Linguist.
This is a
scholar who studies language scientifically. A linguist is not necessarily the
speaker of the language he/she is studying. That is to say the linguist is only
interested with the language patterns of the language he/she is studying. Say
for instance the linguist may study the grammar, phonology, lexis and semantics
of Chinese language while he is not the speaker of Chinese.
c) Lingua
franca
This is an
auxiliary language that is used to facilitate communication among the people
who use different languages. Also it can be defined as a hybrid or other
language used over a wide area as a common or commercial tongue among people of
different speeches. When people who have different languages come together and
need to communicate among themselves they need a common language that connects
them in areas such as trade, education, politics etc. This is what we
technically call lingua franca. For example Kiswahili is a lingua franca of the
most Tanzanians. English is also a lingua franca of the world.
d) First
language/mother tongue/native language
This is the
language which a child is first acquires from childhood. The child does not
need formal classes to be able to speak the mother tongue. For example English
is spoken as a mother tongue in USA, UK, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. Mother
tongue is not necessarily mother’s language. The mother may be speaking
Kinyamwezi, but if the child grows in an area where kimasai is spoken and as
such the child acquires Kimasai that is the mother tongue to that child. In
Tanzania for example there are many children who acquire Kiswahili as their
mother tongue while their parents have different mother
tongues. Sometimes the first language is referred to as Language 1
(L1)
e) Second
language (L2)
This is the
language learned/acquired after the first language. This may be learned for
different purposes like commerce and trade, education, sociability, or
government activities within a given country. For instance English is used as a
second language in countries like, Kenya, Nigeria, India, Pakistan. In some
countries the second language is also the national language. E.g. English in
Nigeria, Kenya, Zambia, and Uganda. Some speakers of the second language manage
to attain high proficiency in the second language and some even manage to reach
a standard similar to that of language 1 {L1}
f) National
language.
This is a
language that is considered to be the main language of a country. A country may
choose one variety/dialect and declare it as a national language. {as the case
of Kiunguja}. In many countries the national language is also an official
language; used in government, courts of law and official business. For example
Kiswahili is the National language in Tanzania, French in France, English in
USA, and other commonwealth countries such as Nigeria and Zimbabwe.
In
countries with many languages {multilingual nations} the term “official
language” is preferred. E.g. in Singapore, there are 4 official
languages, English, Chinese, Malay, and Tamal. In Canada there are English and
French all occupying an official status.
FACTORS
WHICH ENABLE THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE TO BE FORMED
i. Number
of speakers. It must be spoken by the majority. If a country has more than
one language, the one with a great number of its speakers will be considered.
ii. Area/coverage.
Its speakers should be spread in a large area.
iii. Simplicity. It
must be simple to learn.
iv. It
must be a well documented so that further researches on the language can be
possible. It should also be the one used in education and government
processes.
v. It
must unite the people against tribalism. It should not lift up one
ethnic group above others.
vi. It
must be declared by the government.
NB the
national language does not necessarily originate from the country concerned.
E.g. In the republic of Benin Yoruba, Dagon, and Ga dominate and are struggling
to have a dominating importance in the country. Due to this situation the
country was forced to opt for a foreign language.
g) Foreign
language
This is a
language that is learned by someone for the purpose of communicating with
people across boundaries/frontiers or with others who are not from their
country. E.g. foreigners/tourists, commerce, travel, education, and reading
books and listen to news broadcasts. Such a language is learnt where there is
already language 2 that is used in a nation for both official and private
purposes. English is a foreign language in countries like Rwanda, Burundi,
Japan, DRC, USSR and China. French is a foreign language in Tanzania, Zambia
etc. It should be born in mind that the status of foreign language is lower
than that of a second language.
LANGUAGE
COMMUNITY/SPEECH COMMUNITY.
This is a
group of people who regard themselves as using the same language. The Chinese
for example regard themselves as a speech community, the Australians, British,
and Americans form one speech community. The Scandinavians do not constitute a
language community because they have different languages such as, Danish,
Swedish and Norwegian. In multilingual societies there may be more than one
speech variety in common.
BILINGUALISM
This
is a situation whereby a person speaks two languages. Sometimes it is also used
to refer to a society where two languages are spoken. For example Canada is a
bilingual society because both English and French are spoken.
A person who
speaks two languages is called a bilingual. E.g. most Tanzanians are bilinguals
because in addition to their tribal languages they also speak Kiswahili. A
person may become a bilingual by being exposed to those languages and may
acquire them from the environment. Also one can become a bilingual by learning
the second language in schools. It is argued that a person cannot be equally
competent in both languages.
MULTILINGUALISM
This is a
situation in which a person or a society uses many languages. Such societies
are referred to as Multilingual societies. Tanzania is also a
multilingual society as it has more than 120 ethnic languages.
Causes of
multilingualism.
a. Political
and demographic factors. When people move from one place to another they
carry along their languages, this makes the increase in the number of languages
in the destination area.
b. Education.
Some people learn new languages in schools. If the education system allows
multiple languages to be taught, then it is more likely for the recipients of
that education to be multilinguals. Take an example of Tanzania education
system which allows Kiswahili and English to be used/taught as both medium of instruction
and subjects. In addition to these languages French is also taught in some
schools as a foreign language while Arabic is also recognised in Islamic
institutions. This also makes Tanzania a multilingual society.
c. Culture.
Some people may admire the culture of other people. In the process they may
also want to learn their language as a way of identifying themselves with
people of those cultures. E.g. if someone admires the culture of the English
speaking people, he/she is more likely to learn English as well thus becoming a
multilingual.
d. Economic
factors. As people move from place to place looking for better economic
opportunities, trade and commercial purposes etc they happen to carry their
languages with them. This adds the number of languages in the society they
migrate to. E.g. the Indians and Arabs who come in Tanzania for trade purposes
may learn Kiswahili and carry it along when they go back home, thus making
their societies multilingual.
e. Natural
calamities. Natural calamities like flood, earthquakes, volcanoes, and
droughts may force people to move from place to place. In so doing they may
take their languages to the societies they migrate to.
DIGLOSSIA
This
is a situation in which two languages or language varieties co-exist side by
side in a community and each one is used for different purposes. This should
not be confused with bilingualism. In diglossia one language variety has a high
status and the other a low status. A high variety is used in formal matters/domains
while the low variety is used in informal domains such as shopping,
conversation at home, etc. Kiswahili and English in Tanzania fit in this
concept. Kiswahili is relatively low in its functions while English enjoys a
high status as it is used as a medium of instruction in higher learning
institutions high courts, trade and commerce, medicine etc.
Yet
Kiswahili also in some instances enjoys a high status. Besides being a national
and an official language in Tanzania it is used in schools, courts,
international conferences etc. In such a situation where even the language
categorised as low enjoys a high status as well in some domains, we refer to it
asDOUBLE OVERLAPPING DIGLOSIA.
Diglossic
situation is also evident in Canada where both French and English are used.
INTERNATIONAL
LANGUAGE
It is not
usually easy to say what is or is not an international language until we have
fully comprehended the criteria that make a language international. For example
English is regarded as the world’s most important language and most widely used
language.
The
criteria that make a language international.
1. Number
of native speakers that the language happens to have.
2. Geographical
dispersion. The language should be geographically dispersed in many continents
and countries.
3. Its
vehicular load. To what extant is it a medium of science and literature or
other highly regarded cultural manifestations?
4. The
economic, technological and political influence of its speakers.
Therefore
we can define international language as;
A language that
is used by more than one nation. Or it is the language that is used officially
beyond the national levels to facilitate communication between nations.
Examples of international languages are; English, Kiswahili, French, Spanish,
Portuguese, Russian, Arabic etc.
Some of the
international languages listed above achieved the status of international
languages as a result of historical events such as colonialism and imperialism.
Some crossed their boundaries due to trade, ideological reasons and other
contacts like education, diplomacy etc. E.g. Russian.
Why is
Kiswahili an International language? Explain by giving five points. (NECTA
2014)
i. Number
of native speakers. Kiswahili is an international language because it is spoken
by many people in different countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda,
Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
ii. Its
vehicular load. Another reason is that Kiswahili is used in literature; there
are books which are written in Kiswahili language and read across the borders;
and that it is a means of international entertainment through songs and films.
iii. Economic
and political influence. Kiswahili is an international language because it is
used in international meetings such as EAC, SADC and AU. It is taught in
different Universities abroad, for example, Kenyatta University, Makerere
University and Berlin University.
iv. It
is used by the World media such as BBC, DW, Voice of America, Radio Vatican,
KBC, UBC and TBC;
v. Geographical
coverage. Kiswahili is now used in many countries and many continents ass can
be evidenced by the media mentioned above.
THE
STATUS OF ENGLISH IN THE WORLD
As we have
seen English is used globally. In some countries it occupies the
status of native language, some second language in others it is a foreign
language and some countries yet have declared it a national language.
ENGLISH
AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
The English
which is referred to as international one is the Standard English. This is an
English dialect accepted as a model throughout the English speaking community.
It is the only non-localised dialect without significant variations and is
universally accepted as the appropriate educational target in teaching English.
English
qualifies to be an international language due to the criteria mentioned earlier
but let us examine them in details.
1. Number
of Native speakers.
English is
the mother language of an estimated 341 million people and the second language
of 508 million people in over sixty countries and states where it enjoys the
status of official or co-official language. Countries where English is the
majority mother tongue include the United States (76%), the United
Kingdom (94.8%), Canada (59.3%), the Republic
of Ireland (92.3%),Australia (95%), and New
Zealand (91.4%). Together, these five countries form the foundation of
English as a mother tongue in the world.
However, if
we add the number of native English speakers in the countries listed above to
those in India, Africa, and Oceania, the total increases from 306 million to
374 million. This is the number of English speakers (or anglophones) in the
world, strictly speaking.
2. Geographical
dispersion.
English is
now found in all countries of the world with over 2.2 billion people having
competencies in the language in varying levels of proficiency. English is the
second most commonly used language in the world (next to Mandarin). Native
English speakers-about 370 million-are now outnumbered by those coming to
English as a second or alternative language.
NOTE: Chinese has over one billion
speakers yet it is not an international language. This is due to the fact that
all those speakers constitute native speakers. The language is not
geographically dispersed in other continents but it is spoken within China or among
Chinese themselves. So it does not qualify to be an international language
because of that limitation.
3. Its
vehicular load.
English is
the dominant language globally in telephone communication, science and
technology, commercial travel and business, book publishing and second language
instructional programs. English is the language of the Internet even in China
where over 84% use the language
English is
used in over 95% of transactions among members of the European Union and
throughout the Commonwealth
4. Political,
technological and economic influence.
The powerful
nations that use English as native speakers (USA & Britain) have got a big
political and economic influence all over the world. They are members of G8 and
permanent members of the UN. English is an official language of theUnited Nations and
many other international organizations, including theInternational
Olympic Committee.
STATUS
AND ROLES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN TANZANIA
(A) LANGUAGE
POLICY.
Language
policy refers to the decision of the government on the status of languages in a
country. That means which language should be used in which domains and for
which purposes. Today in Tanzania it is difficult to judge whether English is a
Second or Foreign Language because we normally don’t hear English in streets,
at market places or in buses. English is spoken only in classrooms, where after
all both English and Kiswahili are used. Language policy in Tanzania recognises
both Kiswahili and English as official languages and are acceptable in
government communications.
(B) STATUS
AND ROLE OF ENGLISH.
Ø English
is used as a medium of instruction in secondary schools and institutions of
higher learning. It is also used as a medium of instruction in English medium
Primary schools.
Ø English
is taught as a subject from primary level to university level.
Ø English
is used as official language in high courts, official letters (e.g. job
application letters,) in job advertisements, job interviews,
hospital prescriptions, legal documents, and in journalism
(newspapers TVs and radios)
Ø English
is used in international conferences like EAC conferences.
Ø English
is used as a second language next to Kiswahili by many in Tanzania especially
those who have Kiswahili as their mother tongue.
(C) STATUS
AND ROLE OF KISWAHILI.
Ø Kiswahili
is used as a medium of instruction in Primary level (except the English medium
schools)
Ø Kiswahili
is taught as a subject from primary level to university level.
Ø Kiswahili
is used as official language in government offices, media (newspapers, TVs, and
Radios) Internet, parliament, political campaigns, local trade and churches.
Ø Kiswahili
is used as a second language to the majority of Tanzanians.
Ø Kiswahili
is a national language of Tanzania.
Ø Kiswahili
is used in literature. There are many books in Kiswahili language written by
Tanzanian authors.
(D) ARGUMENTS
IN FAVOUR OF ENGLISH
i. English
is an international language. It is not a property of any particular nation
anymore. As an international language it enhances access to scientific,
technological and technical knowledge.
ii. English
is used in international trade/business. Tanzanians must learn the language to
be able to enjoy the opportunities the English speaking community has to offer.
iii. English
is well documented and researched compared to Kiswahili. There are many books
in English than there are in Kiswahili. So Tanzanian will miss a lot of
knowledge offered in English language if they throw away English.
iv. Expanding
the labour markets. If the students will be subjected to Kiswahili only it will
narrow their chances of getting jobs from institutions that use English such as
UN agencies.
v. Learning
through English is a way of practising the language. If we learn through
Kiswahili it will be difficult to master the language.
vi. Learning
through English makes a student divergent in thinking. A person who speaks many
languages will have divergent thinking because each language community looks at
the world differently.
vii. It
is more expensive to translate English books into Kiswahili. There is no enough
money to meet the cost of translating the materials available in English into
Kiswahili so as to use Kiswahili as a medium of instructions.
viii. English
is used for education. Since we lack enough skilled people like doctors,
engineers etc we have to send our people to different countries for studies.
ix. We
need English for relationship. Tanzania sends delegates and ambassadors in
English speaking countries. So it is important for us to learn the language to
enhance such a relationship.
(E) ARGUMENTS
IN FAVOUR OF KISWAHILI
i. Kiswahili
is accessible to the majority of Tanzanians. Because Kiswahili is accessible to
the majority of Tanzanians it would be easier to learn through it.
ii. English
is a foreign language. Forcing students to learn through a foreign language is
like colonising their mind. So we should use Kiswahili as a way of getting rid
of colonisation.
iii. Kiswahili
is a language for social development and political unity. Most Tanzanians use
Kiswahili in their day to day social and political activities which unite over
120 ethnic groups. So it is better to learn through Kiswahili for sustainable
development and political unity.
iv. Kiswahili
is a language of national identity and cultural heritage. Kiswahili is a
language that originates from Africa, so to teach using Kiswahili is a way of
cherishing our cultural heritage.
v. English
is taught so badly in schools. English lacks adequate trained teachers,
teaching and learning resources and teaching methods. So a majority of students
know much about the language but cannot use to communicate in both written and
spoken forms.
vi. Psychological
studies show that children learn better in a mother tongue. So Tanzanians
students should be taught in Kiswahili for fuller development of their mental
abilities.
vii. No
language is endowed with scientific knowledge. Linguistically speaking, all languages
are equal. There is no superior language than others. If thinking and
innovation are pegged on the knowledge of English language, why are the Chinese
and Japanese, for example, influencing the world in spite of their deficiency
in English?
viii. Most
teachers teach using Kiswahili instead of English. Already teachers are
teaching using Kiswahili in the classroom instead of English. This indicated
their lack of proficiency in the language or their understanding of poor
proficiency in their students. So it is high time we formalise the use of
Kiswahili.
(F) WAYS
TO IMPROVE THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH.
As we saw
above English is still facing many challenges in the way it is taught and used
in Tanzania. To improve the teaching and learning of English the following can
be done among other things;
1. Efforts
to prepare well Trained English teachers. The government should make
extra efforts to train teachers who are going to teach English. Most teachers
who teach English are not competent in the language. They make a lot of
grammatical, phonological and pragmatic errors which are copied and imitated by
the learners. So both teachers and students remain linguistically poor.
2. Adequate
Teaching and learning resources. More grammar books should be
printed and be available for everyone.
3. Encouraging
the use of English in everyday life. In Tanzania English is seen than
heard. Practice makes perfect.
4. Using
appropriate teaching and learning methods inside and outside the classrooms. Teachers
should stop teaching by means of Kiswahili in English classrooms. A
communicative approach for example requires learners and teachers to use the
target language in learning. Our target language here is English so teachers
should teach it using English. Others include, debates, oral presentations,
essay writing, home reading, speeches language clubs etc.
5. Using
English as a medium of instruction from Primary School. There is a
special time in the mental development of a child associated with language
acquisition which is called Critical Period. This is a period before puberty.
Most students at this age are in primary schools. So if the children/students
will be exposed to English language at this age it will be easier for them to
learn the language.
6. Using
teaching aids. Teachers of English should use the teaching aids
to improve the results. Teaching Aids are of three kinds; Visual Aids, Audio
Aids and Audio-Visual Aids. These include, TV sets, recorded materials like
DVDs, CDs, reading English newspapers, story books etc, listening to English
news broadcasts etc
7. Motivation
to teachers and students. Language learning is strenuous. It needs more
efforts and dedication. So teachers who are involved in the teaching of English
should be motivated so as to spend more time with students and help them with
language learning. Also students who show relative improvements in English
language should be motivated.
NB: The ways
suggested are not exhaustive you can add to the list.
LANGUAGE
VARIATIONS
All human
languages have internal variations, arising from the different ways speakers
express the same meaning. In this case, no two speakers of the same language
speak exactly the same way; nor does an individual speaker speak the same way
all the time. Although primarily our discussion will focus on English
language, it should be born in mind that variations exist in all languages.
ACCENT
In
phonetics, Accent refers to the features of
pronunciation that signal the speaker’s background.
It is also a
variety of language characterised by peculiar pronunciation.
Accent also
refers to the way in which a speaker pronounces and therefore refers to the
variety, which is phonetically and/or phonologically different from other
varieties. Chambers & Trudgill (1980:5).
Accents
of English differ in many aspects
Eg (i) Number
of vowel phonemes.
(ii)
Rhoticity; There are Rhotic and Non Rhotic accents
(iii)
Some are highly described in literature and some are not.
Within a
principle accent of English it is possible to contrast two or more minor
accents; E.g. within East African Kiswahili accent, one can identify Kenyan
Accent, Ugandan Accent and Tanzanian Accent. However, within Tanzanian accent
there can also be minor accents like Lake Zone accent, Eastern zone accent,
Northern accent etc.
BRITISH
ENGLISH ACCENT
In
England, there is a considerable variation within the accents of English. There
is so much variation that it is so difficult to apply the term British English
in spoken English. Accents of English in Britain can be subdivided into.
a) England
English accent which comprise:
1. Southern
England accents.
2. Midlands
England English accents.
3. North
English accents which are further divided into
i. Yorkshire
ii. Lancashire
iii. Native
London Accent (cockney) and
iv. West
country accent
b) In
Scotland, there is Scottish English and the closely related accents of Scots
languages.
c) In Wales,
Welsh English is spoken
d) In North
Ireland, Irish English is spoken.
RECEIVED
PRONUNCIATION (RP)
It
originated in the South East England in the royal family, the area around
London between 15th C-16th C. it first emerged
in the royal court of the monarchy, but today it does not belong to any region.
It is accepted around the British Isles. Although the British society has
changed, RP is no longer the accent of the upper class but at least used by
educated, professionals, rich etc. Only 3% of English speaking population speak
RP.
It
is also used as a model of teaching and learning in many countries.
It is taught
to foreign learners because it is considered the most prestigious and most
beautiful accent. Originally, it had been used in radio and TVs consequently it
is called the BBC accent.
Characteristics
of RP.
a. It
is a non-Rhotic accent. /r/ is not pronounced when it appears in the final
position and before consonants. Eg car /ka:/
b. It
uses the dark /ɫ/ when it occurs at the end of a syllable, or before another
consonant. In other phonetic environment, it is clear. Eg feel/fi:ɫ/ compare
leave /li:v/
c. It
does not have yod-dropping after the sounds /n/, /t/ and /d/ e.g. in AmE new
/nu:/, tune /tu:n/ and dune /du:n/ are pronounced as /nju:/, /tju:n/ and dju:n/
respectively in RP
d. The
/t/ has a strong aspiration when in initial or final position. E.g. top /tͪɒp/
compare stop /stɒp/, also sport /spͻ:t ͪͪ /
e. It
is rich in phonemes. It has 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
f. It
is posh i.e. it is said to be palatable and easy to learn.
g. It
is a regionless accent.
CAUSES OF
LANGUAGE VARIATIONS
There are
different factors that contribute to language variations these include the
following.
1. Geographical
Factor (Regional Dialect.)
It is easy
to identify a user from a certain place by the way someone uses the language
different from the other users from other place that speak the same language.
Here we get the dialect that is called REGIONAL DIALECT.
Regional
dialects are found at national and international levels. For example the
Dialects of English at national level include Welsh, Scottish, cockney, and BBC
English. At international level we have, British English, American English,
Canadian English, Australian English, West African Pidgin English (WAPE) etc.
2. User’s
Class Membership/Social Stratification
We can also
find users from a certain class speaking differently in certain aspects from users
of another class who speak the same language. Here we get social
dialect or sociolect.
The classes
may be those of higher and lower, educated and uneducated, town dwellers and
village dwellers, Muslims and Christians, etc.
3. User’s
Time Of Existence (Historical/Temporal Factor)
Languages
change with time (it is dynamic). Users of any language also use the language
as it is used in their time of existence. This causes the varieties labelled as
Old English, Middle English and Modern English. Language changes in all
aspects, i.e. grammar, vocabulary, word order, spellings, meaning,
pronunciation etc.
4. User’s
Individuality (Idiosyncratic Factor)
Every
individual user of a language has individual idiosyncratic (peculiar)
linguistic features characterising the way he/she uses the language different
from all the other users. Linguists believe that no two speakers of the same
language speak exactly the same way. The differences in individual ranges from
voice quality, pronunciation, grammar, usage, handwriting and preference in
certain utterances like: you know.., in fact...., I see..., The
variety of language characterising an individual user is termed as IDIOLECT
5. User’s
Age
Users of
different ages use language differently in almost all such aspects as voice,
pronunciation, vocabulary, and usage. We categorize age in terms of childhood,
youth and old age. Children have their own way of speaking termed as childish.
E.g. Motherese (an adult imitation of the speech of young children as used by
mothers when speaking to their children.) Young people’s dialect is
characterised by slangs and peculiar accent.
SLANG is referred to as a casual or
informal way of speaking. It is used in informal situations with colleagues,
teenagers, students, friends of relatives. Old people use euphemism much often
and sometimes they conservatively retain dated features of the language.
6. User’s
Sex.
Language
also varies with sex in some aspects that make male users speak differently
from female users. The difference is usually found in their voice quality,
accent, as well as general usage, such that there as some expressions that are
counted as feminine and masculine in nature. (Consider the Swahili slangsshostii and shoga which
means best friend, can male speakers use them)
7. Occupation.
The kind of
occupation that someone is engaged in is determines the way someone is using
the language. We know for sure that lawyers use the language differently from
the journalists. Also there is a way a police officer uses the language that is
different from the way the pastor uses it even when they seem to be talking
about the same topic. Look at the following example.
Police officer: We shall deal with the criminals.
Pastor : We shall pray for the sinners.
This kind of
language that is used by people of particular occupation or profession is
called Jargon.
JARGON is a technical language used by
a group of people who belong to the same field/profession. This kind of
language is understood by people or specialists of particular
occupation/discipline. For example words likemutatis mutandis, inter
alia, herein, thereof, are used in legal documents so they are legal
jargons.
DIALECTS
This is a
subdivision that deviates from a main language by having peculiar vocabulary,
pronunciation, grammar and spellings. It is a variety of language that is
determined by users. Eg British English and American English are examples of English
dialects.
SOME OF
THEIR DIFFERENCES.
BRITISH
ENGLISH
(BrE)
|
AMERICAN
ENGLISH (AmE)
|
GRAMMAR
i. Has
one form of past and past participle of the verb get-got
|
Has two
forms
Get-gotten(pp)-got
(pt)
|
ii. Repetition
of the subject ‘one’
Eg. One
cannot succeed unless one works hard.
|
No
repletion of ‘one’
Eg. One
cannot succeed unless he/she works hard.
|
iii. In
questions
Eg Have
you got a pen?
|
Do you
have a pen?
|
iv. Use
of preposition ‘from’ after different
Eg. Your
shirt is different from mine.
|
Uses
‘than’ after different.
Eg. Your
shirt is different than mine.
|
v. Retains
‘should’ after the verbs like demand, require, suggest, insist. Eg We suggest
that Sir Mwita should preach today.
|
Omits ‘should’
after those verbs.
We suggest
that Mwita preach today.
|
PRONUNCIATION
There are
many words that differ in pronunciation some of them are:
Schedule
/∫edju;l/
News
/nju:z/
car /ka:/
God /gɒd/
Go /gəʋ/
|
Schedule
/skeʤu:l/
News /
nu:z/
car /ka:r/
God /ga:d/
Go /goʋ/
|
SPELLING/ORTHOGRAPHY
Programme
Theatre
/litre/centre
Catalogue
Colour
Disk
Cheque
Encyclopaedia
Amoeba
Defence
/offence
|
Program
Theatre/liter/center
Catalog
Color
Disc
Check
Encyclopedia.
Ameba
Deffense /
offense
|
LEXICON/VOCABULARY
Chemist
Maize
Elevator
Sweet
Petrol
Cv
Railway
Lorry
Aeroplane
Aerial
Luggage
Biscuit
Holiday
Post
Sweets
Rubber
Rubbish
Bookshop
Hall of
residence
|
Dentist
Corn
lift
candy
gas
resume
railroad
truck
airplane
antenna
baggage
cookie
vacation
mail
candy
eraser
garbage
bookstore
domitory
|
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND DIALECT
The attempt
to distinguish language and dialect has always been a controversial issue.
Dialects and language are not to be taken as well defined separate entities but
frequently they merge into one another without any discrete break.
In
sociolinguistics, the following criteria have been used to distinguish the two;
1. Size.
A
language is larger than a dialect in geographical dispersion and number of
speakers. A number of English speakers around the world is generally bigger
than that of say British English dialect alone.
2.
Prestige.
Language
is more prestigious than a dialect. People feel relatively better when they are
said to speak a language than a dialect.
3. Mutual
Intelligibility.
Dialects
are mutually intelligible while languages are not (though not always the case).
That is to say speakers of different dialects of the same language can readily
understand each other but speakers of different languages do not. That implies
for instance that all speakers of English dialects can understand each other.
Nevertheless,
as we saw earlier it is not always easy to distinguish language and dialect.
The reason is, the main criterion used is that of mutual
intelligibility.
One
way of distinguishing Language from Dialect has been to say,“Language is
a collection of mutually intelligible dialects” (Chambers &
Trudgill 1980:4, Vaillet & Stewart 2001). That means speakers from
different dialects of the same language can considerably understand each other
quite well, though it may not be for 100%.
The
definition above characterises the dialects as subparts of the Language. This
criterion of Mutual intelligibility may have some relevance, but it does not
help us to decide what is and what is not a language.
Thus,
it is not so easy to say whether two language varieties are dialects of the
same language or different languages. This leads to the fact that the
consideration of what is and what is not a language is based on the reasons
that are non-linguistic rather than linguistic factors. These include;
geographical, social, cultural and historical factors.
To
internalize this concept let us begin by examining the following cases.
First,
If we consider the Scandinavian Languages, we observe that Norwegian, Swedish
and Danish are usually considered different languages; unfortunately for our
definition they are mutually intelligible. (Vaillet & Stewart2001). The
speakers of the three languages can readily understand and communicate with one
another.
Secondly,
German is considered a single language, but there are some parts of Germany,
that are not intelligible to speakers of other parts. In some cases when two
varieties fall into two distinct political and geographical borders they are
termed as different languages, no matter how intelligible they might be. This
situation exists near the border of Holland and Germany where the dialects of
either side of the national borders are mutually intelligible. Because of
international borders (and probably political and cultural considerations),
speakers of these languages regard them as different languages.
In
Tanzania the case exist between the Sukuma and Nyamwezi, these two varieties
are mutually intelligible, but since the speakers of these varieties fall into
distinct tribes with different cultural backgrounds, they consider their
varieties different languages as well. A contrary feature exists among the
Chagga. Although they consider themselves as speaking the same language, Chagga
language is mutually unintelligible across all its dialects like Machame,
Kibosho, Marangu etc. Based on the considerations such as common cultural
and historical background the speakers of these dialects are all said to speak
Chagga.
PIDGINS
AND CREOLES.
PIDGIN
It is
a contact language developed and used by people who do not
share a common language in a given geographical area.
So, a pidgin
is a simplified language derived from a contact between two or more people with
different languages. In other words it is a hybrid form of languages.
Types of
Pidgins.
There are
two types of pidgins.
a. Temporal
pidgin/marginal pidgins.
This one
lasts in a very short time. It disappears when the contact is over. People who
come together for a specific purposes like war, evangelism, temporary jobs like
road constructions etc. may develop a kind of simplified language to help them
in communication. This language dies away when the contract or the war is over.
b. Expanded
pidgins.
This lasts
for a long time. It develops in areas where people have multiple languages. For
example in Papua New Guinea there is a common example of a pidgin called Tok
Pisin.
Characteristics
of Pidgin.
Ø It
has limited vocabulary.
Ø It
is used in a limited way and the structure/syntax is very simplistic. E.g. they
don’t mark plurals in nouns.
Wan pikin
(one child) tu pikin (two children), triman (three men) foa woman (four women)
Ø Since
they serve a single simplistic purpose, they usually die out
Ø No
agreement between subject and predicate in the 3rd person.
e.g. pusi
dring di milk (Pussy drinks the milk)
Ø It
does not have native speakers, it is reduced in linguistic
form and grammar. It is restricted in contexts of use and
is typically unstable and highly mixed. It may sometimes be
a stable variety with norms of acceptability, but is NOT a fully
adequate natural language
Ø It
is characterised by reduplication. Eg goody-goody (very good) fain fain (really
lovely), long pela long pela (very long)
CREOLE
If the
pidgin is used long enough, it begins to evolve into a more rich language with
a more complex structure and richer vocabulary. In
some cases the children of speakers of Pidgin may decide to use it as their
mother tongue. Once the pidgin has evolved and has acquired native
speakers (the children learn the pidgin as their first language), it
is then called a Creole. An example of this is the Creole from Papua New
Guinea, TOK PISIN, which has become a National language. Also Krio is
an example of a Creole spoken in Sierra Leone. Other examples include;
a) Guyana
in Northeast South America.
b) Jamaican
Creole in Jamaica
c) Gullah
in USA parts of Geogia and South Carolina
ž So
Creole is a pidgin which has become the mother tongue of the members of a
speech community.
Characteristics
of Creole.
ž Vocabulary
is more comprehensive. Creoles have more developed vocabulary compared to
pidgins.
ž The
syntax of Creoles is more advanced than that of pidgin. Nevertheless, the
following can still be noted
a) There
are no forms of BE as auxiliary or copular verb.
Eg She a
nice person. (She is a nice person)
b) No
agreement of subject and predicate in present tense.
She sing in
de choir. (She sings in the choir)
c) There
is no ‘s’ as a plural marker in nouns.
Two book
(two books)
d) A
verb is negated by inserting NO particle.
I no want it
(I don’t want it)
e) There
is no past tense marker. Past tenses are expressed using the base form without
ending.
I go
yesterday (I went yesterday).
Look at
the way the following pidgins/creoles express the Lord’s Prayer.
Hawaii
pidgin. (Hawaii)
God, you our
Fadda, you stay inside da sky. We like all da peopo know fo shua hou you stay.
An dat you stay good and spesho, An we like dem give you plenny
respeck.
We like you
come King fo everybody now. We like everybody make jalike you like, Ova hea inside
da world, Jalike da angel guys up inside da sky make jalike you like.
Give us da
food we need fo today an every day. Hemmo our shame, an let us go Fo all da
kine bad stuff we do to you. jalike us guys let da odda guys go awready, And we
no stay huu wit dem fo all da kine bad stuff dey do to us. No let us get chance
fo do bad kine stuff, but take us outa dea, so da Bad Guy no can hurt us.
Cuz you our
King, You get da real power,
And you stay
awesome foeva. Dass it.
TOK PISIN
(Papua New Guinea)
Papa bilong
mipela, yu stap long heven, Mekim nem bilong yu i kmap holi. Mekim Kingdom
bilong yu i kam. Strongim mipela long bihainam laik bilong yu long graun olseam
ol i bihainim long heven tu. Nau yu ken givim mipela kaikai inap long dispel
de. Na yu lusim ol rong bilong mipela, olsem mipela i lusim ol rong ol man i
mekim long mipela. Na yu no bringm mipela long traim tasol tekewe mipela long
samting nogut.
Kingdom na
strong na biknem i bilong yu tasol oltaim.
Tru.
KAMTOK
(In Cameroon) De Lohdz Pria
Oua Fada whe
you lif fo heaven
Yo name must
be holy, make yo commandia i come fo we, how you want, so i must be for groun
like fo heaven.
Give we chop
whe nuff fo we this day, and excuse we bad, like we too, we excuse the people
whe them do we bad.
No let we go
fo bad road, but move we fo bad thing
Amen.
GULLAH
(Carolina, Georgia and Florida)
We Papa een
heaben,leh ebrybody hona you nyame cause you da holy. We pray dat soon you
gwine rule oba all ob we.
Wasoneba
ting you da want, leh um be een dis wol, same like e be dey een heaben. Gee we
de food wa need dis day yah an ebry day.
Fagibe we fa
de bad ting we da do. Cause we da fabibe dem people wa do bad ta we.
Leh we don’t habe haad test we Satan try we.
Keep we from
e ebil.
Amen.
DEVELOPMENT
OF LANGUAGE.
FACTORS
FOR DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION OF LANGUAGE.
1. Trade
Trade brings
people together and in the process people of different languages may borrow
some words from each other. Also it carries a language from one geographical
area to another. Take an example of how Kiswahili spread from the coastal areas
to the interior.
2. Religion.
In the
process of spreading the religious beliefs of a certain religion the language
used also spreads. Eg Christian missionaries helped in the spread of English
language. Also Islamic religion has helped the spread of Arabic language.
3. Colonization
Colonialism
has helped the spread of colonial languages to their colonies. Most nations of
the world that were colonises, today they use the languages of their colonial
masters. That is why we have francophone and Anglophone countries. Languages
like English, French, Portuguese, spread to Africa during colonialism.
4. Government
on language policy
The language
policy of a nation helps in the development of certain language above others.
For example after independence, Tanzanian government took some measures to
develop Kiswahili including declaring it as a national language and making some
bodies to develop the language eg TUKI, BAKITA etc.
5. Social,
science and technological development.
Invention of
new technologies and social affairs results to coining new words into the
language. Eg ng’atuka, tarakilishi(computer), facebook, watsapp, ipad, etc.
6. Mass
media.
The mass
media have a great role to play in the development of the language. These
include; News papers, radio, and television. Eg Kiswahili is spread through
BBC, TBC, KBC, UBC, VoA, DW, etc.
STANDARD
AND NON STANDARD VARIETIES.
STANDARD
DIALECT.
Linguistically
speaking, no one dialect, or language is better, more correct, or more logical
than any other. Rather every language variety is a rule-governed system and
effective means of communication.
So Standard
Dialect is the one which is used by the group that enjoys general
respect, political and social prestige and economic power. i.e. the ruling
class. Descriptively speaking, a standard dialect is a variety used by
political leaders, the media, and speakers from higher socio-economic classes.
It is taught in schools and to non-native speakers. Every language has at least
one standard dialect that serves as the primary means of communication across
dialects. In actuality, there is no one standard dialect instead many different
varieties of what people consider the standard.
Socially
speaking, a standard dialect is the dialect of prestige and power. E.g. in US
the prestigious group corresponds to people in power, wealthy and educated. It
is the speech of this group, therefore, that becomes standard, but there is
nothing about the variety itself that makes it prestigious.
From a dozen
of definitions available in different literatures, the following
characteristics must be put forward.
1) Standard
dialect is a non-localized dialect. Some linguists call it a dialect,
but a dialect of its own since it has no local base and there in nothing in its
vocabulary or grammar which tells where it comes from.
2) The
linguistic features of Standard dialect are chiefly matters of grammar,
vocabulary and orthography (spellings and punctuation).Pronunciation is
ignored in this matter when speaking about Standard English.
3) Standard
dialect is a variety that carries most prestige in a country e.g. from
social class, material access, educational background, political strength etc.
the dialect chosen by these people is considered to be standard.
4) Standard
dialect is used as a medium of Educational instructions. The prestige
attached to Standard English for instance is recognised by adult members of the
community and results them to recommend it to be used as a medium of
Educational instructions. It will be widely disseminated thus widely
understood. It is also taught to non native speakers.
5) Although
Standard dialect is widely understood, it is not widely produced. Only a
minority of people use it e.g. the Media Broadcast.
6) It
is used at international conferences.
7) It
is globally used in both print and electronic media.
8) It
is well researched and used by scholars.
In this
basis the Standard English of the English-speaking world can be defined as;
A
minority variety identified chiefly by its vocabulary, grammar and orthography
and which carries the most prestige and is widely understood.
STANDARDIZATION
OF LANGUAGE
There are
some processes that are involved in the standardization of the language.
Typical standard language will have passed through the following processes.
a. Selection
A particular
variety has to be selected out of many as the one to be developed into standard
language. Such a variety may be an existing one and used by a class of people
considered as important in the society. So a variety spoken by rich people,
royal family, politicians, etc will be favoured for selection. For example
during standardisation of Kiswahili Kiunguja dialect was selected.
b. Codification
This is the
practice of creating the norms of usage. Codification is done by agencies such
as an Academy by writing grammar books and dictionaries to fix the variety so
that everyone agrees on what is correct. This helps to familiarise people with
the variety so that every ambitious citizen is likely to learn the correct form
of the language.
c. Elaboration
of function.
The selected
variety should be used in all functions associated with central government,
management and with educational and scientific documents of all kinds and of
course in various forms of literature. This may require extra linguistic items
to be added to the variety especially technical words.
d. Acceptance.
The variety
has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of the community.
In fact it can be taken as a national language. On being accepted the standard
dialect serves as a strong unifying force to the state. For example in Tanzania
Kiswahili is used as a unifying factor and a symbol of independence.
Both
American English and British English are taken as major standards of English
language.
NON-STANDARD
DIALECTS
It is
important to understand that non-standard does not mean “substandard” or “inferior”
as many perceive. Just as standard dialects are associated with the language of
the “powerful” and “prestigious” class, non standard dialects are usually
associated with the language of lower socio-economic class.
It is a
non-linguistic notion to consider non-standard dialect as ‘bad’ and ‘improper’
ways of speaking as opposed to standard varieties which are said to be ‘good’
and ‘proper’.
